Term
| Genetic influences on development |
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Definition
1. Genotype: a person's genetic inheritance
2. Phenotype: a person's observable characteristics that are a combination of heredity and the environment
3. Polygenic inheritance: most traits are influenced by multiple genes (height, weight, personality)
4. Polygenetic traits are influenced by heredity and the environment |
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Term
| Environmental influences on development |
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Definition
1. Maternal health can greatly impact a developing fetus
2. Disease is present (rubella, AIDS) many risks posed to child
3. Malnutrition can lead to a variety of problems
4. Stress can also lead to a variety of problems |
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Term
| Nature-nurture interaction |
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Definition
*Transactional model
Nature plays more of a role earlier in life
Nurture is more important later in life |
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Term
| Risk factors: Genetic abnormalities |
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Definition
1. Due to two recessive genes
2. Cystic fibrosis, tay-sacks, anemia |
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Term
| Risk factors: Chromosomal abnormalities |
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Definition
1. Less common than autosomal abnormalities - Presence of too many or too few chromosomes that can have a substantial impact on development.
2.Sex chromosome abnormalities are gender specific.
3. Normal males inherit an X and a Y chromosome while females have two X's. A single Y chromosome is sufficient to produce maleness while its absence is necessary for femaleness.
4. Female abnormalities are due to variations in the number of X chromosomes.
5. Male abnormalities are the result of irregular numbers of either the X or the Y chromosome or both.
A. Down syndrome or Trisomy 21: extra number 21 chromosome and is marked by: -Mental retardation -Retarded physical growth & motor development -Distinctive physical characteristics -Increased susceptibilty to Alzheimer's dementia: More likely in children born to women 40-49 years old; increases with maternal age B. Klinefelter's Syndrome: Males born with an extra X chromosome (XXY) C. Turner's Syndrome: Affects only females (X)) -Unless given hormones, will not develop secondary sex characteristics -Fragile X Syndrome: 5-10% of nations mentally retarded have it -XYY: Individuals develop into normal boys but often display aggressive/antisocial behavior as men |
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Term
| Risks: Teratogens - What determines their impact on development of the fetus? |
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Definition
| 1. Substances that cross the placental barrier and cause defects in the embryo or fetus 2. Alcohol, narcotics, cocaine, nicotine, lead 3. Babies addicted to drugs are twice as likely to die after birth than nonaddicted babies and continue to show behavioral effects of their addiction at one year of age 4. Overall exposure during embroyonic stage is most likely to cause major structural abnormalities -first 2 wks: Ovum fairly resistant (if affected, likely to be aborted) 5. Effects vary, depending on: (a) developmental stage of organism - whether happening during Critical Period (b) Individual teratogen (c) Maternal physiological status: Most individuals who utilize drugs are not receiving good prenatal care and nutrition (d) Maternal and fetal genotypes: Males are more vulnerable to teratogens that affect CNS (e) Level of exposure to teratogen x-rays versus alcohol consumption |
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Term
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Definition
| A disease of the CNS caused by a single dominant gene. A child of an affected parent has a 50% chance of inherititin the disorder |
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Term
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Definition
Genes determines a trait
A single pair of genes determines very few traits, while the majority is determined by polygenetic inheritance. |
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Term
| Single Gene-Pair Inheritance |
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Definition
| Traits that are the result of one pair of genes, either a pair that contains a single dominant gene or a pair that consists of two recessive genes. |
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Term
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Definition
Contribution of heredity to an observed characteristic.
Indicates the extent to which phenotype varies within a group of people as a result of differences in genotypes; may not apply to other groups.
Does NOT provide any information about any particular individual.
Often modified by environmental factors. |
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Term
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Definition
Genes located on the sex chromosomes that influence sex-linked characteristics.
Most are carried on the X-chromosome (color blindedness & hemophilia; NOT pattern baldness) |
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Term
| Define Genetic abnormalities. Give 2 examples. |
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Definition
| Recessive genes are the mode of transmission for the following DO: 1. Cystic Fibrosis: Congenital disease of mucous glands throughout the body, usually developing in childhood and resulting in DO of the lungs and pancreas 2. Tay-Sachs Disease: Occurs mainly in children of Eastern European Jewish descent and causes the brain to swell and damage itself against the inside of the skull and against the folds of the dura mater that encase it. The neurological symptoms begin by 4 months and include: 1. An exaggerated startle response to sounds 2. Listlessness 3. Irritability 4. Spasticity 5. Seizures 6. Dementia 7. Death |
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Term
| Name the three stages of prenatal development. |
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Definition
1. Germinal stage: First two weeks make up the germinal stage and during this stage the fertilized ovum is called a zygote.
3. Embryonic stage: 3-8 weeks
-Develop 3 distinct layers of cells from which all structures of the body are formed; all major structures formed by the end of the Embryonic period:
a. Ectoderm: skin, brain, spinal chord, sense organs
b. Endoderm: digestive system, liver, respiratory system
c. Mesoderm: muscles, blood, circulatory system
3. Fetal Stage: 9-birth
-Major task = growth |
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Term
| Time span for development |
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Definition
Zygote: 2 wks after fertilization
-3 days: 16-32 cells
-4 days: 64-128 cells
-8 days: bundles of cells that adhere to uterine wall
-10 days: Blastocyst forms (150 cells and is the placental amniotic sac that forms around the zygote) |
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Term
| Critical Periods where major physical problems may occur. |
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Definition
CNS: Brain and spinal chord; most vulnerable during 3-5 wks after conception; Brain = most vulnerable organ throughout pregnancy and childhood
-Heart: Most sensitive during formation (3-6wks)
-Arms and legs: 4-7 wks
-Eyes: 4-8 wks
-Teeth and Palate: 7-10 wks
-External genetalia: 7-12 wks
-Ears: Largest critical period to vulnerability in morphological changes (4-12wks) |
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Term
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Definition
1. Absence of hormonal stimulation results in female development
2. Male gonads are differentiated before female gonads
3. Presence or absence of male hormones principally controls prenatal sexual differentiation
-Male hormones --> Male development
-Lack of male hormones --> Female development |
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Term
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Definition
1. Complications during the birth process
2. Poor maternal health
3. Exposure to teratogens
4. Genetic factors |
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Term
| Birth defects: Genetic Factors |
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Definition
Most birth defects attributable to genetics are the result of either a pair of recessive genes or chromosonal abnormality
A. Recessive gene disorders: conditions due to a pair of recessive genes (sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, Phenylketonuria, some forms of diabetes)
B. Chromosomal abnormalities: Either
(a) Sex-linked: Turner's Klinefelter's, Fragile X)
(b) Autosomal (Down's Syndrome/Trisomy 21 - most common chromosonal birth defect [MR, retarded physical growth and motor development, distinctive physical characteristics, increased susceptibility to Alzheimer's dementia, leukemia, & heart defects) |
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Term
| List the 6 scales of infant intelligence measurement. |
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Definition
1. Gesell Development Schedules: 5wks-6yrs
-Used to ID of neurological defects and organically caused behavioral abnormalities in early life
-5 fields of Bx: Adaptive, gross motor, fine motor, language & personal-social
2. Baley Scales of Infant Development: 2mo-2.5 yrs -Standardized test of infants' mental and motor development
-Assesses current developmental status rather than predict subsequent ability level
3. McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities: 2.5-8.5yrs -General cognitive score measure of intellectual development
4. Kaufman Ass't Battery for Children (KBAC): 2.5-12.5yrs
-Covers an achievement scale
-Nontraditional individual intelligence test that seeks to provide fair assessments of minority children and children with disabilities
5. Wechsler Preshool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI): 3-7yrs
6. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Chilren: 6-16.9yrs |
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Term
| Describe Continuity and Stability with Childhood Adult Measures |
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Definition
1. Tests given during 1st year of life have little or no predictive value: Most useful to diagnose defective development resulting from organic pathology (heredity or environment)
2. Preschool tests, especially after 2yrs of age have moderate validity in predicting subsequent intelligence test performance |
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Term
| List and describe the developmental research methodologies. |
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Definition
1. Cross-sectional: Different groups (ages or developmental level) are compared at the same point in time.
-Problem: Cohort effects: People born at a particular time may experience particular events during their lifetime and the effect measures may be a result of this shared/common event
-Ex: Studying groups of 5, 10, & 15yr olds
2. Longitudinal: Same group studied over time
-Problem: Attrition, costly, biased sample
-Ex: Studying a sample of 15yr olds over a 10yr period
3. Cross Sequential: Combination of cross sectional and longitudinal studies. Assessing members of 2+ age groups at 2+ time, which controls for cohort effects.
-Ex: Studying 5, 10, & 15yr olds for a period of 5yrs |
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Term
| List and describe the reflexes in the newborn. |
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Definition
Reflexes: Unlearned respones to particular stimuli in the environment
1. Babinski: Toes fan out upward when soles of feet are tickled
2. Babkin: Closes eyes, opens mouth, turns head to side when pressure is applied to both palms
3. Rooting: Turns head in the direction of touch applied to the cheek.
4. Moro: Flings arms and legs outward and then toward the body in response to a loud noise or sudden loss of physical support.
5. Palmar Grasp: Grasps object lightly when placed in palm
6. Stepping: Makes coordinated walking mov't when held upright with feet touching flat surface |
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Term
| Physical Development of the newborn: Perception |
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Definition
A. VISION: Newborn sees 20' at birth = extremely nearsighted(adult = 200-400')
-2-5days: Discriminate b/n objects and ppl
-1mo: Discriminate b/n mother and strangers
-2mo: Limited color vision
-4-6mo: Depth perception
-6mo: Visual acuity close to that of an adult
B. AUDITION:
-Fetus hears sounds during the last months of development
-Newborns only slightly less sensitive to sound intensity than adults
-Shortly after birth: Some auditory localization is evident shortly after birth but seems to disappear b/n 2-4mo. and then reappears and improves during the rest of the 1st year
-Auditory Localization: Ability to orient toward direction of a sound; shortly after birth infant sensitive to speech sounds and can distinguish b/n vowels "a" and "i"; will turn head towards source of sound; prefer sound of human voice to that of other sounds
-2-3mo: Can distinguish b/n similar and consonant sounds
-3mo: prefer mother's voice
C. TASTE AND SMELL:
-Newborns responsive to different tastes and odors
-within hours after birth, their facila expressions show that they can differentiate b/n sweet and nonsweet tastes, have preference for sweet liquids, prefer fruits to vegetables
-Turn faces away from strong, unpleasant odors
-8 days: Breast-fed infants prefer smell of mother's milk over that of another woman
D. PAIN: Infants are sensitive to pain at birth and their sensitivity increases during the first 5 days of life |
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Term
| According to Piaget, adaptation involves 2 complimentary processes. |
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Definition
1. Assimilation: Incorporation of new knowledge into existing cognitive schemas or structures.
-Process by which people integrate properties of the environment into their current internal psychological structures.
-Ex: If a child gets a toy for the first time, they will treat it as if it were any other object - attempting to understand it by assimilating it into his/her current repertoire of schemas
2. ACCOMODATION: Modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge.
-Process in which ppl change in response to demands of the environment.
-Ex. Once a child has assimilated the idea of the toy and begins to recognize the toy's unique properties, he/she will accomodate by adjusting his/her existing schemas and, as a result will develop a new way of reacting with the toy |
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Term
| What is Piaget's equilibrium? |
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Definition
Motivation for cognitive development comes from a drive toward cognitive balance, or equilibrium.
-Development occurs when a state of disequilibrium brought on by a discrepancy b/n the person's current understanding of the world (repertoire of schemas) and reality is resolved through assimilation and accomodation.
* Back and forth mov't from equilibrium to disequilibrium which produces efficient schemas |
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Term
| What are Piaget's 4 stages? |
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Definition
Skills gained in earlier stage continue into subsequent stage and the stages always occur in the same order for all children.
1. Sensorimotor
2. Preoperational
3. Concrete operational
4. Formal operational |
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Term
| Describe Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage. |
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Definition
1. SENSORIMOTOR: (Birth-2yrs) -Thought is based no action - child learns about objects through the sensory information provided by them (how they look, feel, and taste) and actions that can be performed on them (sucking, grasping, hitting, etc.)
**KEY ACCOMPLISHMENTS: (a) Dev. of object permanence (allows child to recognize that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight. (b) Deferred imitatioon: 9-12mo. ability to imitate someone or something no longer present -Primary Circular Rxns: Thumb sucking -Secondary Circular Rxns: Repeat axns that caused interesting results in outside environment -Tertiary circular rxns: Deliberate varying of axn sequences
**LIMITATIONS:
-Still make "A and B" Search Error: If an object is hidden under cloth A and is moved under cloth B, they will repeatedly look under cloth A and avoid looking under cloth B
**6 SUBSTAGES: 1. Reflexive Schemas (birth-1mo) 2. Primary Circular Rxns (1-4mo) 3. Secondary Circular Rxns (4-8mo) 4. Coordination of secondary circular rxns (8-12mo) 5. Tertiary Circular Rxns (12-18mo) 6. Mental Representation (18-24mo) |
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Term
| Describe Piaget's Preoperational stage. |
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Definition
Begins with emergence of semiotic function (representational thought), which enables child to use a symbol, object, gesture, or word to stand for something and thereby to use language and to think about past and future events
**KEY ACCOMPLISHMENTS:
(a)Intuitive thinking
(b) Engage in symbolic play
(c) Semiotic function (representation thought) or symbolic function
(d) can solve problems mentally
**LIMITATIONS:
(a) Egocentrism: Inability to separate his/her perspective from that of others
-Due to their egocentricism, preop children are unable to imagine another's POV
-Elkind: Described extensions of this cognitive phase as: Magical thinking, imaginary audience, myth of immunity, personal fable, risk taking; Look at how this affected adolescent's and their belief that others are preoccupied with their appearance and bxs
(b) Animism: Tendency to attribute human characteristics to inanimate objects (ex. child says doll gets lonely if doll does not get played with often)
(c) Inability to conserve: Unable to recognize that changing one dimension of an object does not change its other dimensions (ex. water poured from tall thin glass to short, fat glass does not mean more or less liquid)
(d) Irreversibility: Unable to understand that axns may be reversed
(e) Centration: Focus on most noticable features of objects
**SUBSTAGES:
1. Symbolic thinking/Function (2-4yrs)
2. Intuitive Thought (4-7yrs) |
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Term
| Describe Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage. |
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Definition
Children in the concrete operational stage are capable of mental operations, which are logical rules for transforming and manipulating information (7-11yrs) **KEY ACCOMPLISHMENTS: (a) Seriate (b) Classify in more sophistocated ways (c) Solve class inclusion problems: Understand part-whole relationships in relation terms (bigger, smaller, lighter) (d) Conserve (capable of mental operations): Depends on operations of reversibility and decentration. Develop gradually with conservation of number occurring first, followed by conservation of liquid, length, weight, and displacement of volume
**Horizontal Decalage:
-Term coined by Piaget to describe the gradual acquisition of conservation abilities
-A child's inability to transfer learning about one type of conservation to other types, because the child masters different types of conservation tasks at different ages.
**LIMITATIONS: (a) Can think only about concrete information (b) When applied to abstract ideas, their operations fail |
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Term
| Describe Piaget's Formal Operational Stage. |
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Definition
(11+yrs) **KEY ACCOMPLISHMENTS: (a) Think abstractly (b) Think relativistically (c) Think hypothetically (d) May be renewed egocentricism in ADOLESCENCE that is characterized by self-consciousness, self-criticism, and self-admiration
-Only 50% of adult pop. reached the formal operational stage: When they do use formal operational thought, it is often only in their areas of expertise and experience -Many cultures do not seem to achieve formal operations without schooling - dependent on schooling and experience with the domain |
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Term
| What are the criticisms of Piaget's theory? |
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Definition
1. Culture-bound: Many ppl don't reach Formal Operational stage (depends on experience and schooling)
2. Children seem to be more competent cognitively than their performance on Piagetian tasks(ex. when simpler or more familiar tasks are used, children as young as 2 are able to recognize that other ppl see things from another perspective)
3. Information-Processing Theories: Entire range of cognitive processes that manipulate info in persons of all ages: Continuous, NO stages/NOT age-defined |
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Term
| Describe the Information Processing Theories. |
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Definition
-Compares computer to human mind.
-Cognitive development is a fxn of both maturation and experience and reflects the acquisition and generalization of new and better techniques for handling information accompanied by an increasing capacity for storing info
-View cognitive ability as task-specific and are more concerned about how specific skills are used for particular tasks and contexts than idenfifying global principles of cognitive development
-Consider ENTIRE RANGE of cognitive processes that manipulate infor in persons of ALL ages
(a) Process is Continuous and NOT age-defined
(b) 1 of 2 fundamental approaches to studying info processing:
1. Domain-General: describes in general terms how we mentally process info
2. Domain-specific: describes the role of development of competencies and knowledge in specific domains
**Contrast Piagetians BC focus on very specific processes:
(a) Perception
(b) Memory
(c) Inference
(d) Use of rules |
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Term
| Describe the Vygotskyian Approach. |
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Definition
Sociocultural theory: acknowledges impact of biology on cognitive development, but placed greater emphasis on cultural factors; knowledge cultivated by formal and informal interactions with caregivers, peer, and tutors who coney the knowledge a culture has accumulated
-Emphasizes the role of the environment and social interaction in children's intellectual development
**Zone of Proximal development: Range of potential b/nn a child's observable level of realized ability (performance) and the child's underlying latent capacity (competence) which is not directly obvious
-Refers to tasks that children cannot do on their own, but can accomplish with the aid of adults or older children
-Cognitive dev. is most likely to occus when environmental demands (instruction) fall within a child's zone of proximal dev.
-Scaffolding: Occurs when adults adjust their facilitaitonin relation to children's level of performance (ex. when adults provide temporary aids to help the child learn)
-Internalization: Dev proceeds largely from the outside in, through internalization, which is the absorption of knowledge from context |
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Term
| Describe Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System's Theory. |
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Definition
Describes cognitive performance and development as involving interactions b/n the individual and his or her context, which may produce change in both the individual and the context. Defined the context in terms of 4 nested levels:
1. Microsystem: Face-to-face relationships b/n te person and the immediate setting (home, school, workplace)
2. Mesosystem: Interrelationships b/n the major settings that the person participates in (ex. b/n family members and b/n family members and school personnel)
3. Exosystem: Social structures that impinge upon or encompass the person's immediate settings (ex. neighborhood, church, mass media, gov't, parents' workplace)
4. Macrosystem: Ideologies, customs, values, etc. on or of the person's culture and subculture that determine the patterns of structures and activities that occur at the concrete level |
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Term
| What are the Neo-Piagetian theories? Name and describe 3. |
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Definition
Similar to Piaget BC they define development as moving through a series of stages and achievements
**Case: Proposed that children move through 4 developmental stages.
1. Sensorimotor operations: Children's representations consist of sensory input and their responses to this input are physical mov'ts
2. Representational Operations: Children's representations involve concrete mental images and their responses can produce add'l mental representations
3. Logical operations: Children have the ability to represent abstractly and respond to simuli with simple transformations
4. Formal operations: Children continue to represent simuli abstractly,m but they can now execute complex transformations of information
**Fischer's Skill Theory: 10 levels of 3 groups - sensory motor action, representational and abstraction tiers
-places more emphasis on specific experiences than Piaget
-Changes occur BC of a crucial change in the organization of bx, not BC of increases in the number of items in working memory like previous theories
-Believes that bx at a particular level can vary vastly and skills do not necessarily have to be at the particular level
**2 Types of Processes:
1. Optimal level: Upper limit of one's general information processing capacity
2. Skill acquisition: Set of transformation rules that determines how a person can have a particular skill in one context and then adapt it or form a new skill in another context
**Jerome Kagan: Continuity theory of development
-Cognitive dev. is quantitative and continues process.
-Contrast to Piaget, who argues the discontinuity theory of cognitive development, which reflects the idea that there are qualitative differences in each stage of development |
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Term
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Definition
-researched memory strategies and thought in children
-Argued children's general knowledge about characteristics increases with age (ex. Nursery school children overestimate their ability of the number of items they could remember; 4th graders more accurate in estimating memory span)
-By age 5, do NOT use verbal labels and rehearsal strategies
-Researched children's conceptualization of others, as well as the emerging abilitiy
-Throughout elementary school, children's responses show an increasing understanding of recursive thought (ability to reflect on the possibility that others are thinking about what we are thinking, and so on)
-improves through adolescence, and may depend on more abstract hypothetical reasoning associated with formal operation thought |
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Term
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Definition
-believed perceiving is the process of obtaining info about the world -emphasized the active nature of the visual system -believed infants are able to distinguish novel from familiar (eg. at birth able to distinguish b/n human and other, and prefer mother's voice)
-Theory of Perceptual Learning: opportunities to experiences the regularities and differences among similar stimuli, not the systematic reinforcements of parents or teachers, that enable children to distinguish perceptual events
-Three changes with age: (a) Increasing specificity in perception (b) Improved attention (c) More economical and efficient acquisition of perceptual information |
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Term
| What are Walk and Gibson know for? |
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Definition
-Visual cliff experiments
-Demonstrate that infants have depth perception |
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Term
Cognitive Development: Memory
How is it different b/n children and adults? |
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Definition
**Memory through lifespan: children and adults differ with regard to both short-term (working) memory and long-term memory
-Diff. due to improvements in metacognition (ability to "think about thinking") and
metamemory (aspect of metacognition that involves an ability to reflect on memory as a process -->learned strategies (eg. rehearsal)
**SHORT TERM:
1. Young children seem to have a more limited working memory
2. Preadol, adol, and adults have no prob. repeating 6+ unreleated #s, but children under 6 succeed in repeating only 2 or 3
**LONG TERM MEMORY:
1. Diff. in LTM are due to differences in use of memory strategies:
(a) preschoolers use non-deliberate MS: Incidental Mnemonics, but do so in an ineffective way
(b) Early elementary school use somewhat more effective strategies, but are often distracted by irrelevant info
(c) Children under age 7 also tend to overestimate their ability to remember info, but by 9-10, make estimates as accurately as adults
(d) By age 9/10, children begin to regularly use rehearsal, elaboration, and organization, but it is not until adol. that these strategies are "fine-tuned" and used more deliberately and selectively --> Young children RARELY use rehearsal strategies
**Infantile Amnesia: Adults rarely able to recall experiences that occured prior to age 3 |
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Term
| Cognitive Development: Memory - Culture, experience, and environmental demands influence memory |
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Definition
-W. children generally have more formal schooling and thereofre are given much more practice at utilizing rehearsal strategeis for remembering isolated bits of info
-Guatamalan children have more opportunities to utilize memory enhancing strategies that rely on spatial location and arrangement of objects |
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Term
| Cognitive Development: Giftedness |
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Definition
-Gifted children achieve slightly higher scores on measures of self-concepts, especially academic self-concept
-Better metacognitive skills: More aware of their cognitive processes than their non-gifted peers and are better at selecting, applying, and evaluating cognitive strategies |
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Term
Theories of Language Development:
Nativist Approach |
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Definition
-Attributes language acquisition to biological mechanisms and stresses universal patterns of language development
-Humans are hard-wired to learn language and to develop an implicit theory of language and understand what they hear
-Chomsky: Proposed an innate Language Acquisition Device that makes it possible for a person to acquire language just by being exposed to it
**SUPPORT:
-Children master basics of language b/n the ages of 4 and 6 regardless of the complexity of their native language and that children from all cultures pass through the same stages of language development
-Critical Period: B/n infancy and puberty - all adult immigrants have trouble mastering the language of their new country, while their preadolescent children do so rather quickly
**LIMITATIONS:
-No universal grammer
-Complete master of language continues throughout life which argues against a sensitive period
-Does not explain how children learn how to sustain meaningful conversations |
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Term
Language Development: Interactionist Approach
Name and describe the 5 dimensions |
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Definition
-Language described in 5 dimensions:
1. Phonology: What a language sounds like
-Phonemes: Smallest units of sound in a language, and every language has its own set of phonemes (eg. in English "st" is a phoneme, but "sb" is not)
2. MORPHOLOGY: Rules for word formation -Morphemes: Smalles combinations that have meaning (eg. Prepositions, prefixes, suffixes, and whole words)
3. SYNTAX: Rules of grammer that specify how words are to be combined to form sentences (eg. rephrasing "there you are" to "are you there?" changes the sentence from a statement to a question)
4. SEMANTICS: Rules for selecting words and phrases that express the intended meaning
-Understanding of semantics necessary to interpret sentences, paragraphs, etc.
5. PRAGMATICS: Specify how language is to be used in diff. social contexts
-Pragmatics encompass rules related to turn-taking, non-verbal bxs, and use of slang |
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Term
| Language Development: Structuralist Approach |
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Definition
-Language described in terms of structure
1. SURFACE STRUCTURE: Organization of words, phrases, sentences
2. DEEP STRUCTURE: Underlying meaning of sentences
**Difference is ambiguous: "visiting relatives can be tiresome"
-One surface structure
-Two deep structures: Relatives who visit can be tiresome; Going to visit relatives can be tiresome
**According to Chomsky's notion of transformation of grammer, speaking involves transforming deep structure (meaning) into surface structure (grammatical sentences), while listening entails transofrming a sentence's surface structure into its deep structure |
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Term
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Definition
-Theorized aboutLanguage Development
-Theorized that receptive language exceeds productive language; children are able to understand more than they are able to express
-Understanding --> Communication
1. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION: Children use gestures to comm. before or at the same time they say their first words (late in 1st year)
2. PROTODECLARATIVE: Function to make a statement that calls adult attention ot an object
-Child points to dog, and the adult comments on the dog
3. PROTOIMPERATIVE: Comm. to get the adult to perform an action
-Child points to the sink and the adult gets the child a glass of water
4. STYLES OF COMMUNICATION:
(a) REFERENTIAL: Children who have mostly nominals in their vocab.
(b) EXPRESSIVE: Children who use words that have a social function and use words to direct ppl in the environment
-eg. Word with social functions = Hello |
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Term
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Definition
-Theorized about Language Development
-Theorized concept of scaffolding: A way of thinking about the social relationship involved in learning from another individual; Temporary structure that gives support to accomplish a task that couldn't be completed otherwise by providing supportive skills and techniques |
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Term
| List and describe the stages of Language Acquisition |
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Definition
-Children in different cultures progress through similar stages of language acquisition
-Throughout these stages, receptive language (comprehension) precedes productive language: Receptive language (Comprehension) --> Productive Language (Speech)
1. CRYING: Infants initially produce 3 distinct patterns of crying:
(a) hunger
(b) anger
(c) pair
(d) By 1-2mo: Fussy, irregular cry
2. COOING AND BABBLING:
(a) 6-8wks: Cooing - mainly vowels, usually when happy or content
(b) 4mo: Babbling - repetition of simple consonant and vowel sounds from all languages (eg. "bi-bi-bi")
-9-14mo: Narrow sounds from native language
**Deaf children begin babbling at same time as hearing children; now only deaf children with residual hearing resemble hearing children in terms of early verbalizations
-At same time hearing children begin to babble, deaf children begin to make reptitive, rhythmic gestures with their hands |
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Term
Language Development:
Echolalia and Expressive Jargon |
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Definition
-ECHOLALIA: Beginning at 9 mo, children imitate adults' speech sounds and words without an understanding of their meanings
-EXPRESSIVE JARGON: Vocalization of sounds that resemble sentences but that, again, have not meaning; Follows Echolalia |
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Term
Language Development:
Holophrases |
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Definition
-HOLOPHRASES: 1-2yrs; Single words that express whole phrases and sentences
-Use gestures and intonation to turn single-word into a comment, question, or command |
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Term
Language Development:
First Words |
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Definition
-Often "nominals" or labels for objects, people, or events although action words, modifiers, and personal social words (eg. please) also occur
-Nominals are most likely to refer to dynamic objects (dog, car) and objects the child uses (spoon)
-For many, first word is mama or dada |
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Term
Language Development:
First Words |
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Definition
-Often "nominals" or labels for objects, people, or events although action words, modifiers, and personal social words (eg. please) also occur
-Nominals are most likely to refer to dynamic objects (dog, car) and objects the child uses (spoon)
-For many, first word is mama or dada |
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Term
Language Development:
Telegraphic Speech |
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Definition
-18-24 mo: Use strings of words together to make a sentence ("me go")
-Initially only contain nouns, verbs, and adjectives
-27mo: Prepositions and pronouns have been added (300-400 word vocab) |
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Term
Language Development:
Vocabulary Growth |
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Definition
-<18mo: Vocab growth is slow
-18mo: Rapid increase in vocab with fastest rate of growth at 30-36mo
-36mo: Vocab = 1000 words; Sentences = 3-4 words |
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Term
Language Development:
Gramatically Correct Sentences |
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Definition
-2.5-5yrs: Increasing sentence complexity, grammatical accuracy, continued vocab growth with 50 new words being learned about each month
-Increased use of questions, negatives, and passive voice
-Temporary overgeneralization of grammatical rules is common during this period |
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Term
Language Development:
Metalinguistic Awareness |
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Definition
-During early school years, children gain MA: Awareness, or the ability to reflect on language as a communication tool and themselves as language users
-6-7yrs: Children recognize that words are different from concepts they represent and can use words in humorous and metaphoric ways |
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Term
Language Development:
Definition of Grammer |
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Definition
| Structure of sentences (syntax) and rules of changing and combination of words (morphology) |
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Term
| Language Development: Definition of Semantics |
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Definition
-Rules for selecting words and phrases to achieve intended meaning
-eg. combining words into a meaningful sentence
-Understanding semantics is necessary to be able to interpret sentences, paragraphs, etc. |
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Term
Language Development:
Meaning of Length of Utterance (MLU) |
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Definition
-As child's grammar matures, the sentences will gradually grow in length of MLU
-Measures in morphemes
-15-24mo most kids begin combining words
-3.5yrs: MLY = 4.5
- |
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Term
Language Development:
Motherese |
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Definition
-Child direct speech
-Adults use higher pitch, slower rate of speech and exaggerated facial expressions when talking to young children |
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Term
Language Development:
Naming Explosion |
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Definition
| Enthusiastic attempt to learn a single name for each thing, simply for enjoyment |
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Term
| Language Development: Overextension |
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Definition
Generalizing words using a word to label a broader set of objects or actions than it is usually applied by adults
-eg. Calling every animal a dog
-Words never change from being overextended to being underextended by the same child |
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Term
Language Development:
Underextension |
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Definition
-Using a narrower application of the word than indented
-eg. Using the label "car" to only sedans
-More frequent in the earliest stages of development
underextensions --> overextensions |
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Term
Language Development:
Mismatches |
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Definition
Uses a word only for a set of situations that are quite unlike the adults' referential use of the word
-Usually always get a correction from the parent |
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Term
Language Development:
Pragmatic Speech |
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Definition
| Communicative Aspect of language, gestures, tone of voice, context |
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Term
Language Development:
Pragmatic Speech |
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Definition
| Communicative Aspect of language, gestures, tone of voice, context |
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Term
Language Development:
Babbling Drift |
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Definition
Occurs when sounds uttered begin to take on the character of the child's native language
-they learn to repeat those sounds that receive a desirable response from the environment (those words are reinforced by people surrounding the child) |
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Term
| List the timeline of language acquisition |
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Definition
6-8wks: Cooing
4mo: Babbling
9mo: Echolalia; Expressive Jargon
1-2yrs: Holophrastic Speech; First Words; Telegraphic Speech (1.5-2yrs)
2yrs3mo: Preposition, Pronouns, Vocab = 300-400
3yrs: Vocab = 1000 words
2.5-5yrs: Grammatically correct sentence 50 new words/month
6-7yrs: Metalinguistic Awareness |
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Term
| What is Whorf's Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis |
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Definition
Proposes that language actually determines the nature of thought and predicts that cultures have different ways of thinking about the word ebcause htey have different languages
-If something is encoded in a culture's language, it must be important
-Explains the differences in language as a result of the varied ways the people view the world around them
-Language allows individuals to express their thinking but it is also largely responsible for determining those thoughts |
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Term
Lanugage and Thought:
Piaget |
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Definition
| Language is dependent on thought |
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Term
| Language and Thought: List the 4 views regarding language and thought |
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Definition
| 1. Chomsky: Language and thought are independent 2. Sapir-Whorf: Language depends on thought 3. Piaget: Language dependent on thought 4. Currently: link b/n language and thought is bidirectional with each influencing each other |
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Term
Language Development:
Gender Differences |
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Definition
-Initially attributed to biological factors
-More likely due to social influences
-Greater verbal fluency of girls seems to be related to the tendency of adults to encourage girls to verbalize more often than boys
-During childhood, language of boys and girls reflects their preferred interactions
**GIRLS:
1. Speak earlier
2. Articulate better
3. Have fewer speak defects
4. More likely to use language to provide support and demonstrate attentiveness
5. Ask questions
6. Attach "tag" questions to statements
**BOYS:
1. Rely more on language strategies that establish dominance, gain attention, and involve giving orders
2. Talk for longer periods of time
3. More likely to interrupt
**SIBLINGS: First born children have accelerated development and are considered more verbal
-Twins: Tend to have temporary delayed development |
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Term
Language Development:
Bilingualism & Bilingual Education |
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Definition
-Previously: Bilingualism leads to cognitive deficits
-More recently, better-controlled research indicated that bilingual children do as well as, or better than monolingual children on measures of both cognitive and language development
-Bilingual = more flexible in approach; Better on problems assessing nonverbal skills |
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Term
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Definition
| The strong emotional bond that develops between an infant and his or her primary caregivers |
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Term
| Name the three theories of attachment. |
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Definition
1. Psychoanalytic Theory
2. Learning Theory
3. Ethological Theory |
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Term
Theories of Attachment:
Psychoanalytic Theory |
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Definition
| Describes the attachment of an infant to its mother as the consequence of oral gratification |
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Term
Theories of Attachment:
Learning Theory |
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Definition
Regards attachments as more generally the result of reinforcement (eg. infants form attachments to ppl who provide them with food, affection, and other pleasurable experiences)
**EVIDENCE: Harlow's research with rhesus monkeys demonstrates that attachment is due to something other than oral gratification - infant monkeys in Harlow's study were raised with 2 surrogate mothers:
1. Wire mesh mother
2. Terrycloth mother
-Regardless of which mother provided food, infants became "attached" to the terrycloth mother and ran to it when they were afraid
**CONCLUSION: Baby's attachment to its mother is due, in part, to contrat comfort, or the pleasant tactiles sensation that is provided by a soft, cuddly parent
-Important BC it refuted the social learning perspective & changed the way we think about attachment |
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Term
Attachment Theory:
Ethological Theory |
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Definition
Proposes that humans and other organisms have a biological tendency to form attachments BC they help guarantee an infant's survival
-Ethological theory originated from studies with animals, which revealed the existence of critical periods
-Critical Period: Specific times during which an organisms particularly sensitive to certain stimuli that can have either a positive or negative impact on development
**EVIDENCE:
(a) Lorenz: Found for instance, that the critical period for imprinting in geese occurs during the first two or three days after birth
(b) Bowlby: Applied the notion of critical periods to human attachment and proposed that exposure of an infant to its mother during this period results in a bond b/n them
-Believed that humans are born with a biological predisposition that increases the likelihood that attachments will form - an infant is programmed to cry, smile, and vocalize in order to get its' caregiver's attention, protection, and love, while adults are programmed to respond to an infant's behaviors
-During the first few months of life, an infant emits attachment behvaiors indiscriminately; by 6-7mo, they become increasingly directed toward the primary caregiver
-Primary Attachment: 6-12 mos - Adverse rxn to stranger during this period of attachment
-Separation Distress occurs which appears in the form of protest, despair, and detachment
-From 12mo: Gradual separation from the bond |
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Term
Attachment Phenomena:
Separation and Stranger Anxiety |
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Definition
Signs of attachment include a selective social smile, which begins at about 6mo and the emergence of strange and separation anxiety
**STRANGER ANXIETY: (6mo-2yrs) At 6mo, children become very anxious and fearful in the presence of strangers
-Continues to 2yrs, then diminishes
**SEPARATION ANXIETY: (7-8mo) Severe distress that occurs when a child is separated from his or her primary caretaker
-Peaks at 14-18mo, then gradually declines |
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Term
Attachment Phenomena:
Patterns of Attachment |
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Definition
To assess the nature an consequences of attachment, Ainsworth devised the Strange Situation
**STRANGE SITUATION: Involves having a mother leave her infant alone in a room with a stranger; research has been able to identify four distinct types of attachment patterns
**SECURE:
-Mildly upset by mother's absence and acitvely seeks contact with her when she returns
-mother is emotionally sensitive and responsive
-2/3 US babies are securely attached
**INSECURE (ANXIOUS)/AMBIVALENT:
-Very disturbed when left alone with a stranger, but ambivalent when mother returns and may become angry and resist her attempts at physical contact
-Mothers often moody and inconsistent in their caretaking
-20-25% children
**INSECURE (ANXIOUS)/AVOIDANT:
-Shows little distress when his or her mother leaves the room and avoids or ignores her when she returns
-Mothers: Either very impatient and unresponsive or, at the other extreme, provided their children with too much stimulation
-10-15% showed this attachment
**DISORGANIZED/DISORIENTED ATTACHMENT:
-Exhibit fear of their caretakers, confused facial expression, and a variety of other disorganized att't bxs
-80% of infants who have been mistreated by their caregivers exhibit this pattern
-No associated number |
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Term
| What does early attachment affect? |
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Definition
Early development:
**As CHILDREN (4-5yrs)
1. More curious
2. More popular with peers
3. Less dependent on adults
As ADULTS:
1. High self-esteem
2. Strong sense of person identity
**INSECURE Attachment: Not necessarily linked with poor social adjustment or psychopathology |
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Term
| Attachment to Fathers v. Mothers |
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Definition
Infants form attachments to fathers, even when mothers are primary caregiver: Similar attachment to both parents
-Att't to fathers: More function of the QUALITY of interactions b/n the father and infant than a reflection of the amount of time spent together
**Types of interaction:
-FATHERS:
1. Quality, not quantity
2. Play activities
3. Sons have closer relationships to fathers than do daughers
-MOTHERS:
1. Nurturance
2. Caretaking |
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Term
| How does Prolonged Separation affect childnre? |
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Definition
**PRIOR TO 3mo: little or no negative consequences
**9mo or OLDER:
-Moderate to Extreme reactions:
1. Feeding/Sleeping problems
2. Social withdrawal
3. Increased stranger anxiety
4. Either physical rejection of the new mother or excessive clinging to her
-Longer duration of institutionalization --> Worse effects
**MOST NEGATIVE when separation is during second half of 1st year: May develop Anaclitic Depression
**AD: Syndrome involving developmental delays, unresponsiveness and withdrawal
-May be reduced if child is given consistent and frequent attention by substitute caregivers and may be reversed when the child is later reunited with his/her mother or other caretaker who provides the child with adequate attention and affection
**ORPHANAGES: Moderate to severe reaction to separation
1. Disturbances in sleep
2. Social emotional reactions
3. Feed behaviors
4. Disregulated cycles
**ADOPTIONS:
<3mo: 2%
3-4mo: 40%
4-5mo: 72%
6mo: 91%
9mo: 100%
-->Reversible to some extent
**BOWLBY's theory about separation: 3 STAGES
1. PROTEST: Child refuses to accept the separation and responds by crying, screaming, kicking, etc.
2. DESPAIR: Child seems to give up all hope and becomes quiet, inactive, and withdrawn
3. DETACHMENT: Child begins to accept attention from others, seems less unhappy, and may react with disinterest when visited by the caretaker |
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Term
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Definition
A person's basic disposition
1. A characteristic that seems to be strongly affected by heredity and is to some degree, apparent at birth
2. Rothbart proposes that indiv. diff.s in temperament reflect diff. in reactivity (excitability) and self-control (inhibition)
4. Buss & Plomin: Consider variations in temperament as due to diff. in emotionality, activity, and sociability
5. Stable
6. Prediction to later bx attributes and is the foundation for personality
7. Thomas & Chess: Infants can be categorized on the basis of temperament as Easy, Difficult, or Slow to warm-up
(a) EASY:
i. Even-tempered
ii. Regular sleeping and eating patterns
iii. Adapt easily to new situations and ppl
iv. Preponderance of positive moods
(b) DIFFICULT:
i. Irritable
ii. Withdrawn from new situations and ppl
iii. Have less predictable habits
iv. Preponderance of negative moods
(c) SLOW TO WARM-UP:
i. Inactive
ii. Somewhat negative in mood
iii. Take time to adjust to new stimuli
iv. Few intense rxns
v. Mild and low in anxiety level |
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Term
| How does temperament correlate with later? |
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Definition
(A) Personality
(B) Adjustment
1. Kagan: 21mo Children identified as inhibited or uninhibited --> similar chars. @ 5.5-7.5yrs
2. Chess & Thomas: Many children categorized as difficult or easy at age 3 were rated, respectively, as poorly or well-adjusted s young adults
-Early temperament influences later dev. by affecting the nature of the parent-child interaction (a child may bring out the worst in his/her parents which, in-turn, elicits more neg. bxs from the child and so on; ideal situation is for parents to adjust their style to fit the child's temperament - it is a question of the "goodness of fit" b/n a child's settting and the child |
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Term
| Name and describe the basic assumptions of personality development (4). |
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Definition
All personality theories reflect a pattern of positions that a theorist takes on the basic assumptions concerning human nature
1. NATURE V. NURTURE: Most theorists now agree that experience interacts with biological maturation
2. CONSCIOUS V. UNCONSCIOUS:
-Are motivations of our behavior conscious or unconscious?
-Freud would be placed on the unconscious end while Skinner's theories would be placed on the conscious end of the spectrum
3.RATIONAL V. IRRATIONAL:
-Are humans rational and capable of directing their own lives, or are we driven by irrational forces?
-Freud's theories fall along the irrational end while existentialists would fall along the rational end
4. FREEEDOM V. DETERMINISM:
-The extend to which humans are controlled by outside/external forces or masters of their own ship |
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Term
| Describe Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development. |
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Definition
Freud developed an elaborate theory to explain how the instincts of the id interact with childhood experiences to produce adult personality
**Psyche consists of 3 structures: Id, ego, superego, which are in conflict with one another and reality (this conflict is the core of personality development)
1. ARGUMENT: Propses that the id's libido (sexual energy) centers on a different part of the body during each stage of development and that personaity results from the ways in which conflicts at each stage are resolved
-Failure to resolve a conflict at any stage often stems from excessive or insufficient gratification of the id's needs and can result in fixation at that stage |
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Term
| Describe Freud's psychosexual stages and personality Outcomes associated with the stage. |
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Definition
1. Birth-1yr: ORAL STAGE
-Mouth = Focus of sensation and stimulation during this stage and weaning is the primary source of conflict
-Fixation results in dependence, passivity, gullibility, sarcasm, and orally-fixed habits (smoking, nail-biting, overeating, etc.)
1-3yrs: ANAL STAGE
-Main issue = control of bodily wastes and conflicts stem from issues related to toilet training
-Fixation produces anal retentiveness (stinginess, selfishness, obsessive-compulsive bx) or anal explosiveness (cruelty, destructiveness, messiness)
3-6yrs: PHALLIC STAGE
-Sexual energy is centered on the genitals
-Primary task is the resolution of the Oedipal conflict, which is marked by a desire for the opposite-sex parent and a view of the same sex parent as a rival
-Successful outcome results from identification with the same-sex parent and development of the super-ego
-Fixation can produce a phallic character, which involves the sexual exploitation of others
6-12yrs: LATENCY STAGE
-Libidinal energy is diffuse rather than focused on any one area of the body, and the emphasis is on developing social skills rather than achieving sexual gratification
12+yrs: GENITAL STAGE
-Libido is again centered in the genitals and successful outcome in this stage occurs when sexual desire is blended with affection to produce mature sexual relationship |
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Term
| Explain Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development. |
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Definition
**Erikson was the 1st person to propose a dev. theory encompassing the entire lifespan
-This theory places greater attention on the social context of dev.
**DIFFERENT FROM FREUD:
1. Stressed role of social v. sexual factors
2. Stages involve a different psychosocial crisis
3. Greater emphasis on ego than on id
4. Assumes that people are basically rational and that bx is due largely to ego functioning
**8 STAGES:
1. TRUST v. MISTRUST: Infancy
A positive relationship with one's primary caretaker during infancy results in a sense of trust and optimism
2. AUTONOMY v. SHAME & DOUBT: Toddler
A sense of self (autonomy) develops out of positive interactions with one'e parents or other caretakers
3. INITIATIVE v. GUILT: Early childhood
Family members are the primary "significant others" during early childhood
-Favorable relationsihps result in an ability to set goals and devise and carry out plans without infringing on the rights of others
4. INDUSTRY v. INFERIORITY: School Age Most important influences at this stageare ppl in neighborhood and school
-To avoid feelings of inferiority, child must master certain social and academic skills
5. IDENTITY v. ROLE CONFUSION: Adolescence
-Peers are the dominant social influence
-A positive outcome is reflected in a sense of personal identity and a direction for future
6. INTIMACY v. ISOLATION: Young adulthood
-Main task during early adulthood = establishment of intimate bonds of love and friendship
-If such bonds are not achieved, self-absorption will result
7. GENERATIVITY v. STAGNATION: Middle Adulthood
-The ppl one lives & works with are most important during this stage
-A generative person exhibits commitment to the well-being of future generations
8. INTEGRITY v. DESPAIR: Maturation/old age
-Social influence broadens to include all of "humankind"
-sense of integrity requires coming to terms with one's limitations and mortality |
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Term
| How did Levinson divide the lifespan? |
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Definition
4 Periods:
1. Infancy-adolescence
2. Early adulthood
3. Middle adulthood
4. Late adulthood
**Transitions from one period to the next are particularly stressful and it is during these times that major changes in a person's life structure usually occur
(a) Early Adult Transition (17-22yrs):
-Leave childhood world and form initial foundation for life in the adult world
-Task: Include becoming indep. from one's parents and getting involved in college, miliatry, entrey-level job, etc.
-Leads to formation of The Dream: Image of an ideal life that guides one's decision and choices
-28-33yrs: AGE 30 TRANSITION
-Realization that the life structure that was built in one's 20s is not adequate
-A sense of urgency develops as the result of pressure to fully enter the adults world and the life structure is revised
-Followed by a period of settling down
40-45yrs: MID-LIFE TRANSITION
-Time of significant stress and reorganization
-Important change is deflation of The Dream as one realizes that one's goals are not really satisfying and/or will not be fully accomplished
-This period is marked by a shift in perspective from "time-since-birth" to "time-left-to-live" as a result of an increasing awareness of one's mortality
*Others disagree with Levinson's 80% ppl experience a mid-life crisis; They argue only a minority experience this |
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Term
| What is Margaret Mahler famous for? |
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Definition
Object Relations: Separation-Individuation --> Lifelong process
**4 SUB-PHASES:
1. DIFFERENTIATION (6mo): Understanding that mom is separate
-Separation anxiety occurs @ 6mo
-Stranger anxiety occurs @ 8mo
2. LOCOMOTION (10-18mo):
-Availability of mom important
-Emergences of the Transitional Object (represents mom or love object & helps transition into what makes them separate)
-Focus on mastery of skills like running and walking: "Love Affair with the World"
3. RAPPROACHMENT (16-24mo):
-To "re-approach"
(a) Rise in ambivalence
(b) Child cognitively understands what separate is
(c) More social interaction
(d) Competent with language and understands temporal terms
(e) Conflict b/n wanting to be separate and wanting to be attached
(f) Grandiosity meets limitations
(g) Crisis ends when child finds comfortable distance from mom, which is facilitated by language
(h) Identity emerges
4. CONSOLIDATION OF IDENTITY (24mo):
(a) Achievement in sense of idividuality
(b) Investment in things that make the "me" - "me"
(c) Wants to do things independently
(d) Sense of gender stability |
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Term
| How does parenting style influence personality development? |
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Definition
-Baumring: Presented one of the most widely-cited frameworks for understanding the impact of parenting on personality development
-Combines 2 dimensions of parents:
(1) Warmth
(2) Control
**From these 2 Dimensions, there are 4 parenting styles:
1. AUTHORITARIAN:
**PARENTS:
-Exhibit a high degree of control and little warmth
-Impose absolute standards of conduct, stress obedience, and are willing to use harsh punishment to gain compliance
-Use power for control
**CHILDREN:
-Often irritable, aggressive, and dependent
-Have a limited sense of responsibility and low levels of self-esteem and academic achievement
2. AUTHORITATIVE:
**PARENTS:
-Combine rational control with warmth, responsiveness, and encouragement of independence
-Although set clear rules and high standards for their children, they explain the rationale for their decisions and encourage discussion
-Use of induction
**CHILDREN:
-Assertive, self-confident, socially responsible, & achievement-oriented, and often achieve high grades in school
3. PERMISSIVE-INDULGENT:
**PARENTS:
-Warm and caring
-Provide little control
-Make few demands
-Are non-punitive
**CHILDREN:
-Impulsive
-Self-centered
-Easily frustrated
-Low in achievement
-Low in independence
4. UNINVOLVED - INDULGENT:
**PARENTS:
-Low levels of warmth & control
-Minimize the time and effort they spend with their children
**CHILDREN:
-Low self-esteem
-More impulsive, moody, and aggressive |
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Term
| How does Parental Discipline affect personality development? |
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Definition
-Parents rely on different disciplinary techniques to reduce aggression & other undesirable bxs in their children
-These techniques have been linked with certain personality outcomes, & include:
1. POWER:
-Characteristic of authoritarian parents & is a directive style that relies on physical punishment, threats, & deprivation
-Use of punishment to control aggression can --> increase in aggressiveness in children, especially when:
(a) It is used inconsistently
(b) The child does not identify strongly with the punishing agent
(c) When it is not accompanied by an explanation for why the bx is desirable
2. ASSERTION
3. INDUCTION: Associated with authoritative parenting
-Characterized by use of reasoning, praise, explanation & the communication of clear standards of bx
-Associated with a number of benefits including reduced aggression and increased prosocial bxs |
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Term
| How does Family Composition affect Personality Development? |
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Definition
1. BIRTH ORDER: Consequences for personality & other characteristics
-First-borns: More rapid language acquisition than later-borns, achieve higher grades in school & on IQ tests, usually more achievement-oriented & socially responsible
-Later-borns: Less cautious, better peer relationships, more confident in social situations
2. SIZE & SPACING (# yrs b/n siblings)
-Larger family & smaller gap = Lower achievement |
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Term
| How does gender affect Personality Development? |
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Definition
-Many personality traits linked with either Males or Females
**MALES v. FEMALES:
-More overtly aggressive (verbally & physically) v. relational aggression (attempt to exert control over others by withdrawing friendship & acceptance --> linked with loneliness & depression)
-"Rough and tumble" play
-Greater physical aggression
-More dominant with peers
**Due to both Biological & Environmental factors
-Greatest among preschoolers
-Gradually decline with increasing age up through college years |
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Term
| Explain an individual's understanding of death an dying over a lifetime. |
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Definition
**CHILDREN: Development of a realistic understanding of death develops during childhood & is related both to level of cognitive development & experience
1. YOUNG CHILDREN (3-4yrs):
-Do not understand death is irreversable
-Believe dead retain some of the capacities they had while alive
2. OLDER CHILDREN (5-9yrs):
-Know death is universal & irreversable but tend to personify it, turning it into a "bogeyman" or a "witch"
3. 10yrs:
-Children understand the end of life is a biological process & is not due to an outside force
**Some research suggests that children are acquiring an understanding of death at an earlier age than in previous years, due possibly to greater exposure to death in TV programs & movies (Mahon: about 1/2 5yr olds had accurate conception of death) |
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Term
| Explain ppl's reactions to Dying. |
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Definition
-Anxiety about death is related to both age and personality
-Older adults think about death more often than younger ones
-Anxiety about death is greatest among middle-aged ppl
-Anxiety is lower among better-adjusted ppl (those with high self-esteem, a sense of mastery, and a sense of purpose)
**5 STAGES OF DEATH: Kubler-Ross
1. Denial & Isolation
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance
**Stages may not necessarily occur in this order, and some stages may be repeated |
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Term
| List 5 things that influence Personality Development. |
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Definition
1. Parenting Style
2. Birth Order
3. Family Composition
4. Gender
5. Perspective of Death & Dying |
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Term
| Describe Gender Roles & Gender Identity as they pertain to Identity Development. |
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Definition
**GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT: Involves acquiring a gender-role bxs
-Bye age 3, children refer to themselves as "boy" or "girl"& even sooner are showing preferences for bxs & activities that are consistent w/their gender
**GENDER ROLE STEREOTYPES: Gender-role dev. also seems to entail acquiring gender-role stereotypes - Overgenearlized (often inaccurate) beliefs about what males & females are supposed to be like
**SEX-ROLE STEREOTYPES: Devlop fairly early & affect children's play, memory, & attributions
**SELF-REPRESENTATION: Who you think you are
-Invovles physical self-recognition, gender, racial identity, age & descriptions such as shy, bright, friendly (begins early in life)
**SOCIAL SELF: Self primarily regarded in a social context
-Children do not begin to be interested and concerned with how their bx is perceived by caregivers until about 2yrs
-Social comparison: Important component of self-evaluation at 3yrs - Children become concerned with managing their self presentation through self-monitoring strategies & realize they have multiple selves that are suited to expectations and demands of different social situations
**AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL PERSONAL NARRATIVE: Recollection of specific events in your past are integrated because of their personal meaning & relation to the self
-Does not emerge until age 3 |
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Term
| Explain the Developmental Outline table of Personality Development. |
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Definition
1. INFANCY:
-Newborns enter the world in a state of psychological disorganizaiton
-Young infanct have surprising capabilities for assembling
-As babies are physically handled, they develop a sense of physical self-awareness
2. 6-8mo:
-Development of a basic experience of the subjective self, which then procedes to grow dramatically
**END OF 1ST YR:
-Development of self-areaness in relation to interpersonal events
-Realization that others are also subjective entities who have viewpoints that are different from their own
-Awareness that others have subjective states that can be altered by the child's efforts
-Physical self-recognition
**LATE 2ND YR:
-Toddlers show indications of early self-representation in verbal self-reference
-Refer to themselves as "me"
-Assertion of competence
-Identifying the self by gender
-Emergence of self-conscious emotions
-Early signs of conscience
**EARLY CHILDHOOD: Preschoolers growing concern with how they are seen by the significant ppl in their lives
-Early growth in young children's self-representation during pre-school yrs
-Increasing understanding of emotions, desires
-Rely primarily on concrete, observable features in their self-description, but will also use psychologcal trait terms
-Autobiographical memory emerges around 3rd bday
-Most preschoolers buffered by optimisically positive self-regard - Do not easily recognize their limits & capabilities, do not use social comparison to evaluate their skills but instead evaluate their skills against what they were able to accomplish at an earlier age
**MIDDLE CHILDHOOD: Develop more differentiated, realistic, sophisticated form of self-evaluation, which occurs BC of social comparison
--> SOCIAL COMPARISON ALLOWS FOR:
(a) More complex, sophisticated self-evaluations
(b) More balanced assessment of personal strengths & weaknesses
(c) More realistic evaluations
(d) Awareness that differnces in ability are not easily changed
(e) Capability to more accurately predict how they will perform/achieve
-Self-esteem begins to decline due to more realistic self-evaluation and critical self-assessments
-Develop emotion regulation
-Know how to act appropriately in different situations
-Increasingly self-conscious
**ADOLESCENCE & BEYOND:
-Capable of reflecting on discrepancies
-Capable of imagining an idealized self
-Wondering about roles & responsibilities
-Forging of occupational, religious, political & sexual identity
-Self-esteem continues to decline & then rises during late adolescence
-Gender identity intensifies
-One's sense of self is more reliable in adulthood |
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Term
| What are some of the reasons provided for the explanation of gender-role development? |
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Definition
1. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Proposes that it is the result of a combination of observational learning & differential reinforcement
-Supported by studies finding that boys & girls pay closer closer attention to same-sex models & tend to be treated differently by adults & other children
-GIRLS: Adults respond more quickly to crying babies whom they think are girls; Parents are later more protective of girls than boys
-BOYS: Parents are more protective of girls than boys
-Adults interpret the motivation of babies differently, depending no the child's gender -- when asked why a baby is crying: Parents are more likely to say the baby is angry if they belief it is a boy, but frightened if it is a girl
2. KOHLBERG'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY: Explanation for gender typing, which describes it as a sequence of stages that parallels cognitive dev.
2-3yrs: Children acquire a gender identity, which means that they are capable of recognizing that they are either male or female
-After, GENDER STABILITY: Capability of children to realize that gender identity is stable over time
-Boys grow up to be men while girls grow up to be women
6-7: GENDER CONSTANCY: Capability of children to understand that gender is constant oversituations and know that ppl cannot change gender by superficially altering external appearance of bx (eg. boy wearing sister's sweater does not make him a girl)
LATE ADOLESCENCE: some decline in gender-role differences
EARLY ADULTHOOD: Distinction reoccurs when adults marry
-Even "liberated" couples: 1st born child --> woman assumes primary responsibility for child rearing & housekeeping, man = breadwinner
BEGINNING IN MIDDLE AGE: May be a gender-role reversal - Men become more passive, expressive, sensitive & dependent & women become more active, outgoing, independent, & competitive |
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Term
| Describe Ethnic/Racial Identity and how it affects development. |
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Definition
Refers to the part of the self-concept that is related to one's membership in a particular ethnic or racial group along with one's feelings and beliefs concerning group membership
-Members of minority groups often experience conflicts b/n the values & attitudes of their own culture and those of the dominant cultures
**Some of these conflicts may be resolved through cultural change, which can take 1 of 4 forms:
1. ASSIMILATION: Involves identifying solely with the majority culture
-Absorption of the minority group into the dominant group and subsequent loss of distinct customs, cultural values, etc.
2. ACCULTURATION: Characterized by identification with and involvement in both cultures
-Cultural change that occurs at the interface of 2 cultures, and results in changing your original rituals & values somewhat while at the same time embracing the new culture
-Leads to better psychological adjustment & higher self-esteem
3. ALIENATION: Marginalization of the minority group
-When minority groups are not accepted into the dominant culture & strong cultural values are than maintained
-May cause distrust & suspicion by both the majority & minority cultures (eg. aboriginies)
4. SEPARATION: Self-imposed withdrawal from the dominant group by the minority group where the minority group maintain their traditional ways because they desire an indep. existence
-Little interaction b/n minority & majority groups (eg. Amish)
5. MULTICULTURALISM: Societal encouragement of all ppl to maintain & develop their own cultural identity while functioning within the dominant or larger group
-New cultures are formed by subcultures living & working together
**AFRO-AMERs seem to face the most barriers in racial identity dev., especially gifted students
-To cope with being accused of "acting white", they tend to underachieve; others adopt a "raceless" persona |
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Term
| What did Erikson contend about identity issues in adolescence? |
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Definition
-Primary developmental task of adolescence to be the achievement of a coherent identity & he viewed adolescence as a period of "psychosocial moratorium" - stage during which indiv. can experiment with diff. roles before committing & choosing one
**Marcia expanded on Erikson: 4 Identity statuses (patterns) that characterize adolescence:
1. IDENTITY DIFFUSION: Adolescents exhibiting diffusion have not yet experienced an identity crisis, explored alternatives or committed to an identity
IDENTITY FORECLOSURE: Adol.s are manifesting foreclosure when they have not experienced a crisis but have adopted an identity (occupation, ideology, etc.) that has been imposed by others (often the same-sex parent)
IDENTITY MORATORIUM: Identity moratorium occurs when an adol. exper.s an identity crisis & actively explores alternatives identities
-it is during this period that teenagers exhibit a high degree of confusion, discontent, & rebelliousness
IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT: Adols. who have resolved the identity crisis by evaluating alternatives & committing to an identity are "identity achieved"
-Choice of an identity is often not permanent & further change may occur |
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Term
| What was Hall's argument about adolescence? |
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Definition
Adol. = a period of crisis
-Adol. = "storm and stress" involving emotional maladjustment & instability
-In contrast, RS suggests that only a small proportion of indiv.s experience significant distress during adol. & the rates of serious psychological disturbance among adolescents (10-20%) are not very diff. from those for younger children & adults
**Do experience more life-changing events than pre-adols. & are more vulnerable to certain probs, including:
1. Depression
2. Suicide
3. Delinquency
4. Drug use
(Among girls --> Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia)
**Successful outcomes for char. outcomes of adol. have been associated with the parents willingness to negotiate --> Parents provide teens with support & reassurance while allowing them to establish their own point of view promote the strongest sense of person identity |
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Term
| What is egocentricism, and how does it affect |
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Definition
Re-emerges in a somewhat diff. from during the teen yrs
-Involves confusion about one's thoughts & the thoughts of others
-Manifested in 2 phenomena:
1. IMAGINARY AUDIENCE: Adol.s freq. feel that others are paying attn to them
-This belief accounts for extreme self-consciousness that is char. of teenagers (feeling they are "onstage")
2. PERSONAL FABLE: Adols have a strong belief in the uniqueness of their own expers, which leads to a sense of immortality & invulerability to harm
-They feel as though their expers are unique to them & no one else can understand how they feel (feel like they are invincible) |
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Term
| What is egocentricism, and how does it affect dev.? |
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Definition
Re-emerges in a somewhat diff. from during the teen yrs
-Involves confusion about one's thoughts & the thoughts of others
-Manifested in 2 phenomena:
1. IMAGINARY AUDIENCE: Adol.s freq. feel that others are paying attn to them
-This belief accounts for extreme self-consciousness that is char. of teenagers (feeling they are "onstage")
2. PERSONAL FABLE: Adols have a strong belief in the uniqueness of their own expers, which leads to a sense of immortality & invulerability to harm
-They feel as though their expers are unique to them & no one else can understand how they feel (feel like they are invincible) |
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Term
| How do sibling relationships affect dev.? |
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Definition
Nature of sibling rels varies over the course of childhood & adolescence:
YOUNG CHILDREN: Considerable sibling rivalry
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD: Paradoxical combination of closeness & conflict
ADOLESCENCE: Friction b/n siblings usually declines as they begin to view one another as equals
LATER ADULTHOOD: Variable, but overall those close in childhood grow closer in adulthood
-Quality of peer relationships seems to be more important than the quantity (eg. having at least one confident helps ensure emotional well-being)
**Several Factors contribute to the nature of sibling rels:
1. Siblings get along better when they believe their parents do not have a "favorite"
2. Rel. of siblings often mirrors the parental rel.
3. Nature of rel. is affected by the temperament of the siblings
4. More often parents intervene in their childrens disputes --> more frequ. conflicts |
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Term
| List the determinants of friendships throughout the lifespan & How children conceptualize friends. |
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Definition
1. Age
2. Gender
3. Race
4. Interests
5. Attitudes
**Three Developmental Stages:
1. 4-7yrs: friends are "playmates" - children who like each other and enjoy playing together
2. 8-10yrs: Trust & assistance are critical aspects of friendship & children believe that friends are a source of help & support
3. 11+yrs: Intimacy & loyalty become important factors
-Preadolescent & adolescent roles do NOT deceive, reject, or abandon you |
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Term
| What are the gender differences in friendship? |
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Definition
Become apparent during school years.
**FEMALES: Drawn to more exclusive friendships than males & engages in more intimate self-disclosure
-Tend to utilize suggestions & turn taking
**MALES: Place greater emphasis on shared interests & activities
-Larger number of friends & spend more time participating in large groups
-Emphasize reciprocity: Expect to receive from, as well as give to a friend
-Use commands more frequently
-More competitive
-Larger social network of friends, but are less exclusive than girls |
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Term
| What is the buffering hypothesis? |
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Definition
| Shows that the subjective perception of social support is more critical than actual support not only for alleviating feelings of loneliness but also for reducing the effects of stress and the risk for coronary heart disease |
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Term
| Describe dating, cliques, and crowds WRT dev. |
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Definition
**DATING: (14-16yrs) Close dev with same sex friends then proceed to group contact with opposite sex, then dating, then going steady
**CLIQUES: Friendship based groups where membership is voluntary
-In adol, peer groups tend to be organized around cliques, which are groups of indivs, usually from 2-12 members, who tend to maintain similar ethnic, age, gender, and social parameters
**CROWDS: Larger structures which are loosely organized and less intimate than cliques
-Tend to be based on reputation
-Stereotypes are assigned through consensus of peer groups
-Indivs of a crowd may or may not interact with one another |
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Term
| Compare and contrast characteristic of children who are popular with their peers to those who are actively rejected by their peers. |
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Definition
1. More positive self concept
2. More attractive
3. More creative
4. Intelligent
5. Friendly
6. Sociable
7. Good social skills
8. Athletic skills (esp. among boys)
**ACTIVELY REJECTED:
1. Overaggressive
2. Withdrawn
3. Immature
4. Low in social competence
5. Tend to get low grades
6. Have a poor self-concept
7. Higher risk for delinquent & antisocial bxs, anxiety, depression, & other psychological disorders
--> Aggression = most commonly cited correlate of peer rejection
-6-11% of kids report they have no friends --> higher risk for later maladjustment |
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Term
| What are the effects of peer pressure? |
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Definition
Increased susceptibility to peer pressure in early adol. for PRO-SOCIAL, rather than anti-social bxs & for bxs that do NOT have CLEAR STANDARDS (eg. fashion, music, social activities)
-Older adol: Less susceptible except for smoking, drinking alcohol, engaging in sexual intercourse |
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Term
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Definition
-NOT related to SES
-Most associated with alienation |
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Term
| How does play play a role in development? |
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Definition
-Important contributor to a child's physical, cognitive, social, and emotional dev.
1. MOTOR PLAY: Dev. of muscles & motor coordination
2. ROUGH-AND-TUMBLE PLAY: Teaches children how to express impulses & feelings in socially acceptable ways
3. PRETEND (SYMBOLIC) PLAY: Dev, cognitive abilities related to symbolizing, imitation, & prob. solving
**PLAY CAN BE SOCIAL OR SOLITARY:
1. SOCIAL (ASSOCIATIVE) PLAY: Engaging in similar activities while interacting through physical contact, smiling, & talking
2. PARALLEL PLAY: Child plays alone, but exhibits strong interest in what another child is doing
3. COOPERATIVE PLAY: First observed at 2yrs - Characterized by adopting roles, collaborating, and coordinating activities
**TIMELINE OF TYPES OF PLAY:
12mo: Simple pretend (Babies use objects in the way adults would beginning at 12mo; 18mo - Capable of combining 2 actions in play; Fantasy play only seen in humans)
Parallel
2-3yrs: Role taking/cooperative play; decreasing frequencies of idle, solitary, and onlooker bx; solitary-sensorimotor bx become increasingly rare over the preschool yrs; Sociodramatic play & games with rules are only type of social interactive activities to increase with age) |
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Term
| What is Kohlberg's theory of moral development? How were Kohlberg & Piaget's contentions about moral reasoning similar? |
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Definition
**Similar to Piaget:
1. Moral reasoning reflects his/her level of cognitive competence
2. Universal and invariant stages that parallel cognitive dev.
3. Three levels that each encompass 2 stages: Although there are individual diffs., ppl typically shift from the pre-conventional --> conven @ 10-11yrs --> post conventional @ Late adolescence or adulthood
** When using Kohlberg's model to investigate moral reasoning, a person is asked to judge hypothetical moral dilemmas and to explain their reasons for his/her judgments: Important that the justification behind the answer is consistent with the stage of dev.
(1) PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY: Birth - 10/11yrs
1. Ppl follow rules that are invariant across persons and situations
2. Rules do not change
3. Morality is based on a firm system of reward & punishment
4. No internalization of moral values
5. Moral reasoning is controlled by external reward & punishment
-STAGE 1 (PUNISHMENT & OBEDIENCE ORIENTATION): Goodness & Badness of an act depends on its consequence
-At this stage, right course of action is one that avoids punishment
(Answer: Stealing is Always wrong; One must Always save their wife)
-STAGE 2: INSTRUMENTAL HEDONISM: Consequences still guide moral judgments but judgments are based more on obtaining rewards and satisfying personal needs than on avoiding punishment
(Answer: One Must steal medicine so their wife does not die BC she will be capable of caring for you in the future)
(2) CONVENTIONAL MORALITY (11-17yrs)
-STAGE 3: GOOD GIRL/GOOD BOY ORIENTATION
-Right action is the one that is liked or approved of by others
(Answer to Q: Hanz should not steal BC ppl will not be able to trust him in the future)
-STAGE 4: Moral judgments are based on the rules & laws established by legitimate authorities |
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Term
| Genetic risks: Autosomal Abnormalities |
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Definition
Any chromosome other than a sex chromosome.
Human somatic cells have 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes. |
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Term
| Chromosomal Abnormalities Chart |
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Definition
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Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
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| Female Genotype |
Syndrome |
Male Genotype |
Syndrome |
| XX |
normal |
XY |
normal |
| XO |
Turner |
XXY |
Klinefelter |
| XXX |
Triple-X |
XYY |
XYY |
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