Be able to differentiate between physical sciences and social sciences. How are they the same? How are they different?

1)    Physical Sciences: the study of the objective aspects of nature (bio, chemistry, physics, astronomy, etc)

2)    Social Sciences: the study of how humans live and interact (anthropology, communication, etc.)

List and define the 8 components of communication.

Sender, message, encoding, channel, decoding, receiver, feedback, noise. 

The scientific method. Be able to describe the entire process, in detail. Differentiate between the 4 basic steps. For example, within “Theory” you would need to be able to explain how predictability and falsification relate to that step.

Scientific Method can translate to “research”

Four steps:

1)    Theories: proposed explanation for how a set of natural phenomena will occur.

a)     Predictability: ultimate goal is to be able to predict, explain, and control a phenomenon. (we can predict people who get nervous will get sweaty hands)

b)    Falsification: for a theory to really be a theory there must be a way to test it empirically. (we can use tools to verify atoms exist, but we don’t have the technology to prove aliens don’t exist therefore it can’t be empirically tested.

2)    Predictions/ Hypotheses : hypotheses is the conclusion that occurs at the end of a series of propositions.

a)     Proposition: statement that confirms or denies something

b)    Antecedent: “If” statement

c)     Consequent: “then statement”

If ‘X” then “Y”

d)    Argument:  A logical conclusion from the others.

3)    Observations: part of the scientific method where the researcher attempts to test the hypotheses

a)     Objective: make sure personal emotions don’t interfere with research

b)    Control: prevent personal biases from interfering with research.

4)    Empirical Generalizations: attempt to describe a phenomenon based on what we know about the phenomenon at this time. 

Be able to differentiate between methodological approaches associated with qualitative or quantitative research.

Quantitative: reality exists in patterns, can be understood measured and predicted.

Qualitative: no true measurable reality, but rather various versions of personal realities. 

Be able to correctly identify and define the metatheoretical considerations. Further be able to explain how each of the metatheoretical considerations differs between the positivist and interpretive paradigms. Recall that although there are two paradigms, we discussed three approaches to research: Positivist, Interpretivist, and Critical. (Be able to identify and define all 3).

1^st  approach Positive Paradigms:

-       Most popular

-       Ontology: reality exists as one.

-       Epistemology: knowledge comes from fact

-       Axiology: acknowledging values, but not letting them effect their research.

2^nd Approach: interpretive paradigms:

-       Ontology: subjective reality

-       Epistemology: expenses

-       Axiology: bias, their values effect their interpretations.

3^rd approach Critical:

-       Human activists

-       Ontology: multiple realties

-       Epistemology: knowledge provided by those in power.

-       Axiology: values are integrated/ gained quality through interaction. 

Be able to identify and explain at least two types of plagiarism that are from sources not being cited and at least two types of plagiarism from sources that are cited.

Source not cited:

1)    Ghost Writer: writer has another person literally write the entire paper for them.

2)    The photocopier: writer takes a chunk of material from a source and copies it word for word into their paper

Sources Cited:

1)    Perfect crime: knowing the source is problematic. Ex. instead of citing Wikipedia decide to cite a reference at the bottom of the website.

2)    Forgotten footnote/ reference: may cite the source with in the paper, but forgets to list the info in the reference page. 

What is the difference between a primary source and a secondary source? Which should be used within your final papers?

1)    Primary source: the results of a study actually conducted by the author(s)

2)    Secondary Source: restatements or analyses of the primary research.

What is the difference between a quotation and a paraphrase? When is it appropriate to use each? How often should these be used within a research paper?

Quotation: involves the use of another authors exact words in your study. Use only when necessary, using too many quotations can result in you losing your own voice as an author.

Paraphrase: including another authors ideas in your own words. Have to include the authors name and year of publication. Only use when necessary, still should be your paper 

Be able to identify and explain the different types of research questions and hypotheses.

Research Questions:

1)    Question of definition:

-       What does it mean to be

-       How is it classified as

-       Ex: what does it mean to be nonverbally immediate.

2)    Question of Fact:

-       What has happened

-       What will happen

-       Ex: does practicing a speech help to lower nerves

Hypotheses:

1)    2 Tail Hypotheses: weaker more general. Does not indicate a specific difference or relationship.

2)    1 Tail Hypotheses: stronger statement. Specifically predicts the difference or relationship. Provides direction. 

As discussed (and practiced) in class, when given a hypothesis, know which variable is the independent variable, dependent variable, and be able to explain the relationship and/or direction when appropriate.

Example: Freshman and sophmores will have more communication apprehension than seniors

I.V: Class standing

D.V: Communication apprehension 

Be able to identify and define the 9 criteria for a good hypothesis. (This is posted on BB).

1. Good hypotheses are declarative statements.

Poor hypothesis: Is there an association between depression and relational quality in dating relationships.

Good hypothesis: There will be a negative association between depression and relational quality in dating

relationships.

2. Good hypotheses are complete sentences.

Poor hypothesis: Teenagers and violence

Good hypothesis: Adolescent males will report greater enjoyment of slasher films than adolescent females.

3. Good hypotheses can be empirically tested.

Poor hypothesis: Aliens are better communicators than humans.

Good hypothesis: A person’s age will be related positively to a person’s income.

4. Good hypotheses contain at least two variables.

Poor hypothesis: Extramarital affairs are wrong.

Good hypothesis: The more people watch soap operas, the more extramarital affairs they will have.

5. Good hypotheses specify the nature or direction of the relationship(s) of the variables under

consideration.

A. If the hypothesis concerns group differences, it specifies which group will score higher than which other

group(s) on specified variables.

Poor hypothesis: There will be a sex difference on jealousy scores.

Good hypothesis: Males will score higher than females on total score for the Mathes jealousy measure.

B. If the hypothesis concerns correlations among variables, it specifies whether the direction of the correlation

(association) is positive or negative.

Poor hypothesis: Jealousy will be correlated with anger expression.

Good hypothesis: There will be a positive correlation between jealousy scores on the Mathes measure and

anger-out scores on Siegel’s Anger Expression subscale.

6. Good hypotheses are not value judgments.

Poor hypothesis: Women are better than men when it comes to putting themselves in the shoes of others.

Good hypothesis: College women will score higher than college men on the College Empathy Scale.

7. Good hypotheses are not trivial; for example, they do not predict a relationship that is already wellestablished.

Poor hypothesis: More seniors than freshmen will have declared a major.

Good hypothesis: Seniors will score higher than freshmen on an "anxiety about the future" scale.

8. Hypotheses concerning group differences will include a clear comparative statement.

Poor hypothesis: When it comes to assertiveness, men are likely to do best.

Good hypothesis: Men will score higher than women on the assertiveness measure.

9. In general, good hypotheses do not predict a lack of significant differences or correlations.

Poor hypothesis: Measures of intelligence, competence, motivation, and previous learning will not be related

to how well students do in COMM 480.

Understand the distinction amongst the four levels of measure and be able to associate a proper way to measure them. For example, if I provided you with a “yes” or “no” question, what level of measure am I assessing?

1)    Nominal Data: simplistic in scope. Looks at precense or absence of a variable.

-unorganized, qualitative classification.

-dealing with categories.

-yes/no

2)    Ordinal Data: doesn’t acknowledge 0.

-       Ranks order of elements

-       Can determine less than greater than

-       Logical order

-       Rank order

3)    Interval Data:

-       Establishes a distance between points.

-       Equak distance between points

-       Distance is meaningful

-       Acknowledges 0

-       Likert scale

4)    Ratio Data

-       Most specific becauses theres an absolute 0

-       Indicates a complete lack of variable measure

-       Provides measure of degree to which something actually exists

-       How many times have you cheated on a test? Answer can be 0

Understand the different aspects of variables (i.e., relationships and differences)

Relationship: a correspondence or connection between two variables.

1)    Positive relationship:

-       One variable produces an increase in the other.

-       A decrease in one variable corresponds with a decrease in the other

1)    Negative Relationship:

-       When a decrease in one variable corresponds with an increase in another variable.

-       When an increase in one variable corresponds to a decrease in another variable

Difference: the degree to which one person or group of people are dissimilar from another person or group of people.

1)    Differences in kind:

-       2 or more groups are different.

-       Differences in kind create a grouping variable

-       Ex: cohabitating couples vs non cohabitation couples.

2)    Differences of degree:

-       when two groups have differeing degrees of a variable they both display

-       ex. a cohabitating couple vs a noncohabitating couple display affection (variable) to a different degree.

What are the different types of variables?

1)    Independent Variable: the manipulated variable that causes change in other variables.

2)    Dependent Variables: the variable that is influenced or changed  by the independent variable.

Ex: I.V: cohabitating/noncohabitating couples

      D.V: levels of affection or trust. 

·      Understand why there are issues associated with the five everyday ways of knowing. 

1. Personal Experience
2. Tenacity - assuming something is true because it is always being said
3. Authority
4. Traditions / Customs / Faith
5. Intuition

THE ISSUES

accuracy

over generalization

Cognitive Conservitism - Fill self with good

Contradictory Knowlege

Be able to produce a perfect APA 6^th edition citation for a journal article. (Hint: look through all of the APA references I posted on BB, plus look at pg. 79 in your textbook)

Last, F. M., & Last, F. M. (Year Published). Article title. Journal Name, Volume(Issue), pp. Pages.

Example

Jacoby, W. G. (1994). Public attitudes toward government spending. American Journal of Political Science, 38(2), 336-361