Self Organization

Resnick

Emergence

Resnick

Decentralized Local Interactions

Resnick

Mutual Causality

Resnick

Levels of Organization

Resnick

HYPOTHESIS:

The necessary and sufficient conditions for a physical system to exhibit general intelligent action is that it be a physical symbol system

The mind is nothing more than symbol manipulation

The relation between the symbol and what it refers to

ENCODING

Realization of the designation

ENCODING

Man inside room with just a door

Has stack of papers with input and output rules for Chinese

Somebody sends "input" of Chinese under the door and the man inside reads the rules and sends "output"

Does the man speak Chinese?

Does the room speak Chinese?

Computational

(inputs and outputs)

(goal of the computation)

(where are we?)

Algorithmic

(how is it being ogranized?)

(how the goal gets accomplished)

(longitude/latitude)

Implementation

(what stuff actually does this do?)

(how the algorithim is physically realized)

(GPS)

ANTS GET SMARTER WITH THE RIGHT CONDITIONS AND THE RIGHT POPULATION

At some point, efficiency is the same, no matter what the population size

If there are too few ants you won't create a trail, so you need a certain number

The ants get smarter when the group is enlarged, BUT nothing inside the ants change

Scientific study of culture

Learn to see like the natives do

BUT do not live like the natives

Try to understand what things mean and why things mean what they mean

Make the grounds for inerpretation explicit

Colonies form around Queen

(She lives for 20 years)

Colony will grow till it has 10,000 workers

(Will take about 6 years)

Young colonies all respond different to environmental changes

(Ineffective)

Well established colonies will all act the same way

(Effective)

SINCE and ant lives for 1 year, the ants are not really getting smarter... so there is a cognitive effect depending on the POPULATION of the colony... not the individual ant

Besides the chemicals ants emit, but the frequency at which ants bump into each other

LIVING ON RESIDUE OF OTHER ANTS IS VERY HELPFUL

Evolution is good at TUNING parameters

ONLY CERTAIN KINDS OF SOLUTIONS END UP BEING SELECTED, AND THEY END UP IN THE NEXT GENERATION

i.e. Ants tunes dispersion and evaporations rates to find the peaks in populations

Outcomes of ships not determined by what is in the heads of navigators...

It is done by what's built into the tools they use

MEANS OF PATTERN RECOGNITION AND MANIPULATING OBJECTS

Collecting bits of structure allow for sophisticated computations without knows a whole lot of math

Infering the position of a ship

Cognitive process done in interaction with the environment that have created

GENERAL RULE

Navigators use 3 landsmarks so they can get their position right.

They make TRIANGLES

small triangle = good

big triangle = bad (harder to tell exactly where you are)

obv this is if u arent using gps

like in the olden days

Box in the ship that connects to a telescope and has a hairline in it

HAIRLINE CROSSES 2 SCALES

Outer scale- Bolted to ship and indicates where landmark is in respect to direction ship is heading

Inner scale- TIED TO GYROCOMPASS IN BOX and shows respect to TRUE NORTH

This device allows you to convert an angle in space  into a NUMBER

IT'S A TOOL THAT TURNS A NUMBER INTO A RELATION IN SPACE

i don't know what that means

You only need to know two variables to get the third

You don't even have to use math, just use a straightedge

i.e. Fathometer

Send a sound signal down and waits for it to come back

(Multiplies the time it takes for the sound to come back by the rate that the single was moving to compute a distance)

When we attribute something we put something somwehre as a piece of an explanantion

PROBLEM

What we hear most about is in peoples heads. We can not see things, so we have to infer them.

HOW CAN WE INFER FROM THE INVISIBLE?

We have to infer from what is visible.

We have REASON RESPECT BEHAVIOR

meaning, we behave in ways that bring us closer to our goal

WE ARE NOT RANDOM, BUT SENSIBLE

We behave in ways that bring us closer to our goals

Knowledge is what we attribute. Goals, plans.

Language

Theorem Proving

Clay bits by Mesoporamis people made in almost 4000 BC

shapes of tokens represent different things

(in this example, units of oil)

THIS IS REPRESENTATION

Putting tokens in an envelope (account)

THIS IS STRUCTURE

instead......

they pressed them into the surface of the envelope

so they could make fancier tokens and account for more things

TOKENS BECAME A WRITING TOOL!!!!!!!!!!!!

1. EPHERMERAL VS SEMI-PERMANANT

Lasts as long as it's being produces vs lasts as long as medium lasts

2. DYNAMIC VS STATIC

3. AUDITORY VS VISUAL

4.STRUCTURE IN TIME VS STRUCTURE IN SPACE

If you can read, then you can convert structure in space into structure in time

If you can write, then you convert strucure in time into structure in space

DE

not/negotiation/take it out of context

CON

(with) context/ something in respect to its surrounding

TEXT

weave or surrounds of something

UAL

relations to

IZA

to make or take

TION

the act of making or taking something without respect to its surrounding

Cognitive artifact

Can do arithmetic

Shows how knowledge is represented

Number is represented by structure and patterns of the beads

Rules aren't mathematical but only there to tell you how to move the beads around

THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF A FORMAL SYSTEM

An imaginary device

Uses meaningless symbols

Anything represented as a formal system, could be respresented with a Turning machine

Computers automate the maniupulation of symbols

What could cognition be if its not represented by well-specifiec problems

3 BIG PIECES OF EARLY COGNITIVE SCIENCE

MATH

SYNTAX

COMPUTERS

IF WE THREW AWAY ALL DISKS EXCEPT ONE, then it would stop being a token and type, but would become a tool, a mechanism to create many tokens of whatever type

Token is already associated with what they represent

Figure out how something works and take it to a lab and make it yourself

Logic Program!

Found new theorems in math that mathmaticians agreed with!

A person asks a question to a human and a computer

Must determine which one is the human

LOTS OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES CAN BE MODELED IN COMPUTERS AND MAKE THEM BEHAVE LIKE PEOPLE

PHYSICAL SYMBOL SYSTEM

 Symbols are abstract types that express the identity 

of multiple tokens.

• Expressions are structures containing symbol tokens.

• Designation is a relation between a symbol and the 

entities it symbolizes (usually other symbols).

• Interpretation is realizing the designations of 

expressions.

• Operations include assigning designation to symbols, 

and copying, reading, and writing expressions

These capabilities must exist in some interior 

system, and thus can be illustrated there, 

without involving the interaction with the 

external world.

• A novel feature of physical symbol systems 

is the approach to symbolic function, not 

just by processing, but by internal symbolic 

processing. …

• The prototype symbolic relation is that of 

access from a symbol to an expression, not 

that of naming an external object.

• There must exist a neural organization that 

is an architecture that supports a symbol 

structure

Where is the boundary between symbolic and 

sub-symbolic levels of operation?

• The neural system is not in fact irrelevant its operation supports the symbolic level. 

But it does so in a way that normally hides 

most of its properties, realizing instead a 

symbol system with properties of its own.

MIND IS TO BRAIN AS SOFTWARE IS TO COMPUTER

• In a formal system, state plus operator 

implies a new state,

• States of mind could lead to other states of 

mind in ways that follow rules.

• It is the program that matters.  

• The machine it runs on is “a mere 

implementational detail.”

• The program (the rules) run by the brain 

must be a formal system

• Brain states must correspond to symbols or 

propositions in a formal language. 

• Functional equivalence of your brain states 

to mine – Not identity. 

• Brain states must cause other brain states in just the right reason respecting way

• If we knew the program, we could run it on 

any suitable computer. 

• Then we would have an artificial human 

mind! 

• And we already know how to do this

Look up stuff in foreign disctionry...

symbols keep pointing to more symbols that  u need to look up

you never make it to the physical world! 

no grounding!

DOES IT MATTER THAT IT'S RUNNING ON A BRAIN

OR

DOES IT JUST MATTER THAT THE PROGRAMS ARE THE SAME

If only concerned with flow of throught... maybe machine doesn't matter

WHAT ABOUT..

Consciousness- we don't know if we can represent our consciousness in a computer

Qualia- what is the character of percieving a color. can we model it in symbole?

Affect/Emotion- Can you separate this from thinking?

Embodiment- CLAIMS THAT IT DOES MATTER AND CAN NO DESCRIBE THE COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF HUMANS WITHOUT TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THAT IS IS HAPPENING IN A HUMAN BRAIN AND THAT HUMAN BRAIN IS IN A BODY

Engineering AI

vs

Research AI

Tried to make computers place chess the way humans play it

COMPUTER COULD SEE 8 MOVES AHEAD... UNLIKE HUMANS WHO COULD ONLY SEE 3 MOVES AHEAD

1. COMPUTATIONAL

What's the job to be done?

For navigation, determine position and plan travel

2. REPRESENTATIONAL

How are you going to represent stuff you operate on in order to determine position? How are you going to express position

Position with lataitude and longitude. Time in terms of seconds. Distance in terms of nautical miles.

3. IMPLIMENTATION

PSS claims that it works for mind and the thing that matters is how it's implemented, not where

Finds the position of the ship, which is now an obsolete method

This is the foundation for all computational account, including neural networks

PERSON

Put hairline on a target and read a scale (created a representational state)

Had to recognize what is in the world and had to find a target and use and read the scale

NOT IN THE NAVIGATORS HEAD, BUT IN THE ENVIRONMENT

(Residue of another humans work)

Long/Lat

60 min in one direct = nautical mile

60 min in each of the 360 degrees

21600 minutes around the earth

although, squished down a little....

SO

a min arc of long is longer than a min of lat

Land mass areas are incorrect

 A straight line on a mercador projector- line of constant barring

Let's navigators compute all the points in a given direction from a point by just using a straight edge

...no need for a compass

Compass based on stars

Cardinal direction is east

Eastern horizon

Bright light is Jupiter

All the stars are getting higher and higer towards th east

360/24?

every hour the stars get about 15 degrees higher

Measurement and analog to digital

Digital computation

Chart as the model of the world

Computer that predicts what stars you will see if you know where you are using latitude

Ancient device

Like stars painted on inside of sphere and you know where you are on earth so you know what stars you are looking at

don't even need a theory.. just know where and when

Tides are caused by gravitational pull of the sun and moon on bodies of water

High tide usually 930-10 am and pm

Knowing the phases of the moon and what port, you can know where high tides will be

Another analog to digital converter

Need 3 people

One holds reel, other holds sandglass, last throws sand in glass

Count how many knows went through his hand between the ribbon and hold

Speed of ship in knots

Very early analog to digital conversion

Chart on which plotting a line has a well-define computational meaning

Need a special kind of chart

North wasn't always up.... used to be east!

North became up when we got magnetic compass

North as in up is going away

Want up to be whatever direction you're heading

Knows what stars as visible

Works because it knows location and has a celndar when events like new moons and meteor showers happen

BETTER THAN AN ASTROLABE

• A constraint excludes some possibilities in a range 

of possibilities.

• A particular constraint may leave many 

possibilities in play.

• Constraints can be combined to restrict the range 

of possibilities in play. 

• Sometimes it is possible to combine constraints in 

a way that leaves only a single possibility. 

Direction, position, and distance are all define by this universal constraint, which is 360 degree circle

USE THE SKY

Seeing constellations- different order of activity, not just perceiving we are grouping the stars to make constellations

SCHEMAS

Even if there is more infomation, it is easier to remeber

Micronesia

CAROLINE ISLAND STAR COMPASS

Has 32 points (divided into quarters)

Saved by Arab world

Use landmarks to know where they are

Linear Constellation

• Provide directional reference for course 

setting

• Allow navigator to maintain course

• Via the concept of ETAK are essential to 

determining when to look for the destinatio

--figured out how far you traveled can tell where you are as well

Anomalies

Noted by Western Navigation

• Square compass - horizon as straight line

We use circular compass

• Phantom Etak islands

Location of islands would correspong poorly- there's nothing there

• What is input and what is output?

– Dead reckon position to find etak (Sarfert)

– Imagine Etak to establish position (Gladwin)

• Near and far Etak islands

• Etak island on both sides of the course

• Etak of sighting and Etak of birds

If you have 2 lines of position contraints, you can fix your position.

Get a 3rd line of position and the smaller triangle the less nervous the navigators are