Term
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Definition
| referes to visual sensory memory |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| define whole report procedures |
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Definition
| during sensory memory test, you report ALL items in the array. |
|
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Term
| define partial report procedures |
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Definition
| during sensory memory test, a portion is cued after the display goes off (top, middle, bottom); only report items from the specific section. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| what is the function of sensory memory? |
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Definition
| hold information from sensory path in a "buffer" very briefly for further processing. example: trail of light from sparklers. |
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Term
| what is the capacity of sensory memory? |
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Definition
| 12-18 visual items, 4-5 auditory items. |
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Term
| what is the duration of sensory memory? |
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Definition
| very brief: ~250 millisecond visual, ~.5-2 second auditory. |
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Term
| what is the nature of representation of sensory memory? |
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Definition
| exact physical representation |
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Term
| what is the timespan of forgetting with sensory memory? |
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Definition
| forget very easily, items start to fade as they are being reported, but partial report method shows it is still available when cue occurs. |
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Term
| what is short term memory? |
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Definition
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Term
| what is the function of stm? |
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Definition
| hold information for immediate use, from sensory or from LTM. |
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Term
| what is the capacity of stm? |
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Definition
| 7 +/-2 items, regardless of the nature of the material. example: phone number. |
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Term
| what is the duration of stm? |
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Definition
| brief, 15-20 seconds without rehearsal. |
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Term
| what is the nature of representation of stm? |
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Definition
| usually phonological, visual coding, possibly semantic and motor as well. rehearsal: phonological code: are they putting information that looks the same or sounds the same? like a K instead of a J? they sound alike, as opposed to putting something that LOOKS like a J, or I or something. errors are similar in sound, even when letters are presented visually. example: "j" in list reported as "a". |
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Term
| what is the reason of forgetting in stm? |
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Definition
| interference, possible decay. |
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Term
| what was the Brown-Peterson task? |
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Definition
| three letters, then count backwards from a number by 3. then write down the three letters. the rehearsal is prevented, which makes it difficult. after 3 seconds, ~50% lost. after 20 seconds, all letters are gone. the results are interpreted as evidence of decay. |
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Term
| what does the brown-peterson talk tell us about stm? |
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Definition
| when you rehearse something, you can remember it. but if you can't rehearse it, then you are unable to keep it in your short term memory for a long time. |
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Term
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Definition
| when one groups responses when performing a memory task. an example would be the task to remember a list of words. an individual might group certain words together based on something they can remember and their recall may increase because of this task. |
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Term
| how does chunking affect STM? |
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Definition
| Humans can retain about 5-9 pieces of information in their STM. however, chunking increases this amount of information, which allows STM to store about 4 "chunks". it is a way to increase the capacity of STM. |
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Term
| what are the 4 components of working memory? |
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Definition
executive control system
articulatory loop (phonological loop)
visual-spatial sketchpad
episodic buffer (long-term knowledge store) |
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Term
| what is the function of the executive control system in working memory? |
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Definition
| controlling, monitoring and regulating information needed for reasoning and problem solving |
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Term
| what is the function of the articulatory loop (also known as phonological loop) in working memory? |
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Definition
| access to verbal information or sounds |
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Term
| what is the function of visual-spatial sketchpad in working memory? |
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Definition
| manipulating visual images |
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Term
| what is the function of episodic buffer (long term knowledge store) in working memory? |
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Definition
| may need to draw from your long-term memory to remember something. |
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Term
| how was the dual task method used and what were the results? |
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Definition
| working memory is used both for STM rehearsal and for language comprehension. |
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Term
| give an example of evidence that the phonological and visual components of WM operate independently. |
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Definition
| • The phonological loop is responsible for the manipulation of speech based information, whereas the visual-spatial sketch pad is responsible for manipulating visual images. A visual processing task and a verbal processing task can be performed at the same time, whereas it’s difficult to perform two visual tasks at the same time because they interfere with each other and performance is reduced. This supports the view that the phonological loop and sketch pad are separate systems within working memory. |
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Term
| define proactive interference and give an example. |
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Definition
| when previously acquired information inhibits our ability to remember new information. an example would be if you have trouble learning italian because it was very similar to french, which you had previously learned. |
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Term
| define retroactive interference and give an example. |
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Definition
| when newly acquired information inhibits our ability to recall previously acquired information. an example would be you spent the last two years learning how to speak french and you mastered it. this semester you take italian and it's easy to learn. you meet up with friends to speak french, but find you have difficulty remembering the vocabulary because of the italian. |
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Term
| what is the serial position curve? |
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Definition
| experiments show that when participants are presented with a list of words, they tend to remember the first few and last few words and are more likely to forget those in the middle of the list. |
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Term
| what is the primacy effect (from the serial position curve)? |
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Definition
| tendency to recall earlier words. |
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Term
| what is the recency effect (from the serial position curve)? |
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Definition
| tendency to recall the later words. |
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Term
| how does LTM contribute to the pattern of the serial position curve? |
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Definition
| the words early in the list were put into LTM because the person has time to rehearse the word. |
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Term
| how does STM contribute to the pattern of the serial position curve? |
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Definition
| the words from the end went into STM. |
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Term
| why can't we remember the middle words in the serial position curve? |
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Definition
| because they've been there too long to be held in STM, and not long enough to be put into LTM. |
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Term
| what factors affect recency in the serial position curve? |
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Definition
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Term
| what factors affect primacy in the serial position curve? |
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Definition
| slower presentation rate allows more rehearsal, so it increases primacy. |
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Term
| what are the two main types of LTM? |
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Definition
| declarative and non-declarative. |
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Term
| define declarative in terms of LTM |
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Definition
| something that you can articulate, intentionally go back in memory and recall the memory that you want. EXPLICIT, intentional recall. |
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Term
| define non-declarative in terms of LTM. |
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Definition
| procedural memory. you can't articulate what you have stored... you can demonstrate what you've learned, but can't say or explain what you have learned. IMPLICIT, can be unaware. |
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Term
| what are the two types of Declarative memory in terms of LTM? |
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Definition
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Term
| define episodic and give an example in terms of LTM. |
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Definition
memory for an event, tied to specific time and place.
example: what did you have for dinner friday night? what happened on your 12th birthday? |
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Term
| define semantic and give an example in terms of LTM. |
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Definition
still declarative because you can still ask questions about things, but general knowledge NOT events or places. facts, general knowledge, vocabulary.
example: how many months are there in a year? |
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Term
| what is the relationship between semantic and episodic in terms of LTM and give an example? |
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Definition
you need both for declarative memory. they can work together.
example: "what did you learn at school today?" "i learned birds have wings". so you remember the event and what you learned, and then the "general knowledge" that birds have wings. |
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Term
| what is the main type of non-declarative memory in terms of LTM and give an example? |
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Definition
procedural. important: have to demonstrate it to show this type of memory. cannot be verbally reported, perceptual timing, motor skill, measured by improved performance, conditioning.
example: learning to ski, reading upside down. |
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Term
| what is the capacity of episodic memory? |
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Definition
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Term
| what is the duration of episodic memory? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| what is the nature of representation of episodic memory? |
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Definition
| semantic; errors tend to be based on semantic meaning. |
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Term
| what is the reason of forgetting in episodic memory? |
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Definition
| interference, retrieval failure |
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Term
| what is Craik's depth of processing model in memory? |
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Definition
| the basic idea is that memory is really just what happens as a result of processing information. It concentrates on the processes involved in memory and it is a non-structured approach. You can process information in 3 ways: shallow, and deep. In shallow, there are two examples: structural, and phonemic. the idea that the way information is encoded affects how well it is remembered. The deeper the level of processing, the easier the information is to recall. |
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Term
| what is supporting evidence for Craik's depth of processing model in memory? |
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Definition
| in their study, participants recalled more words that were semantically processed compared to phonemically and visually processed. Semantically processed words involve elaboration rehearsal and deep processing and less accurate recall. |
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Term
| what is maintenance rehearsal in terms of the depth of processing model in memory? |
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Definition
| when you (in a shallow way) rehearse information. You just repeat words over and over again in STM hoping it’ll transfer to LTM. |
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Term
| what is elaborative rehearsal in terms of the depth of processing model in memory? |
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Definition
| transform information somehow. List of words and you come up with associations or see visuals of the words. The key is not just repeating over and over again, but you’re TRANSFORMING it. |
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Term
| what are the limitations of the depth of processing model in memory? |
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Definition
| No independent determination of “depth”, outcome depends on the nature of the task: recall vs. recognition. Depth of processing may affect retrieval in particular. |
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Term
| define TAP (transfer appropriate processing). |
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Definition
| better recall when processes used during encoding are also used at retrieval. shows that memory performance is not only determined by the depth of processing, but by the relationship between how information is initially encoded and how it is later retrieved. |
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Term
| define state-dependent learning. |
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Definition
| information learned in a context will be recalled better in the same context. for example: physiological state (alcohol, drugs, arousal), physical environment (scuba diving and baddeley), and mood. |
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Term
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Definition
| can affect what is stored in memory, and can provide retrieval cues. |
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Term
| how can rehearsal affect memory and give an example. |
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Definition
because of the position in a series and the amount of rehearsal you put into it. Helps determine what memory the information will be stored in and how well you can retrieve it.
example: serial position curve |
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Term
| how can attention affect memory and give example. |
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Definition
affects memory through meaningfulness
Example: depth of processing. |
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Term
| how can mnemonic strategies/imagery affect memory and give example |
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Definition
effects memory through categorization, imagery, method of Loci, Pegword, rhyming, acronyms, verbal strategies.
Example: distinctiveness, structure |
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Term
| how can emotion affect memory and give example |
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Definition
• Emotion: intensity matters, with greater intensity produces better recall.
Example: cahill study: same slides presented, two with different emotional content. Better recall for slides associated with emotional story. |
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Term
| how can context affect memory and give example |
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Definition
(encoding specificity), can affect what is stored and can provide retrieval cues. Information learned in a certain context will be recalled better in the same context.
Example: if drunk and learning how Spanish, you’ll remember Spanish better the next time you’re drunk as opposed to sober. |
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Term
| what is the method of loci mnemonic technique? |
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Definition
| method of memory enhancement which uses visualization to organize and recall information. relies on memorized spatial relationships to establish, order, and recollect memorial content. |
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Term
| how did Cahill study emotion and memory, and what did it demonstrate? |
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Definition
| He had participants view the same slide show, but one group heard an emotional story and believed the graphic surgery slides were real to go along with the slides and the other group didn’t was lead to believe it was all fake. The results showed the effect of emotion from other possible characteristics of a stimulus, and it shows quite convincingly that emotion does make things more memorable. |
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Term
| what is a flashbulb memory? |
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Definition
a very rich, very detailed memory that is encoded when something that is emotionally intense happens. Consistent with record keeping view of memory.
most data indicates flashbulb memories are not different from other memories. |
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Term
| what is evidence FOR flashbulb memory never being forgotten? |
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Definition
| Kennedy study- asked people about their memory of the Kennedy assassination. People reported a lot of detail and were very confident. |
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Term
| what is evidence AGAINST flashbulb memory never being forgotten? |
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Definition
| Challenger study- the day after the Challenger exploded, questionnaires were given to 45 people who reported circumstances of hearing the news. 1 year later, 27 of the 45 did questionnaire again and the results suggests that something happens to memory over time, whether it generalizes or isn’t accurate/more accurate. 20/27 gave a more general report, 7 gave more specific, 7/27 made some significant change in their report. |
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Term
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Definition
| selective episodic LTM disorder |
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Term
| define retrograde amnesia: |
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Definition
| having trouble remembering events that occurred prior to the incident |
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Term
| define anterograde amnesia: |
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Definition
| show normal memory for events prior to the incident responsible for the memory deficit but have severely impaired ability to recall information about events occurring after the incident. |
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Term
| why do we investigate memory disorders? |
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Definition
| because then we can understand normal memory better. |
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Term
| what would the serial position curves of a patient with anterograde amnesia look like? |
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Definition
| we would expect that this type of patient would have a reduced primacy effect but a normal recency effect. |
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Term
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Definition
| a group of objects with something in common |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| an "average" of all members of the category |
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Term
| define sentence verification |
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Definition
| measures latency to respond to a sentence (“a canary is a bird”, you press a button to say true or false and the response time and accuracy is recorded. Then you’re asked “does a bird have wings?” then you can compare it to “does a robin have wings?”) |
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Term
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Definition
| something that sets the subject apart from another object in that category. Example: animal- living, eats. Bird- living, eats, feathers, flies. Robin- living, eats, feathers, flies, red breast, blue eggs, eats worms. |
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Term
| define spreading activation |
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Definition
| when retrieving from memory you are activating a concept. When there’s an activation, it spreads out to connecting areas. Example: imagine you’re on a camping trip, there’s a campfire. Put a metal grill over the fire, it’s very hot. It’s the highest activation. However, the pathways are also getting hot. Far away it still gets warm, which is like partial activation. |
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Term
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Definition
| each concept or property stored only once, at highest level (red breast, blue eggs, eats worms). |
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Term
| describe rule based view of information |
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Definition
| t to identify defining features for some categories (necessary features of a dog… include those that distinguish dog from cat! Hard!) so “rules” can be identified for others (quarter must be a certain size, grandmother must be a female). List of features that define a concept (EX: quarter). |
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Term
| describe prototype representation of information |
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Definition
| comparison with average representation (see different types of dogs at encoding like husky or pit bull, but just store the prototype which is “dog”.) |
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Term
| describe exemplar representation of information |
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Definition
| comparison with all exemplars stored in memory (see the specific dog at encoding, store each exemplar as you saw it, and then derive prototype if it’s needed). |
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Term
| important elements of C&Q's hierarchical network model |
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Definition
• Information is stored in categories, in a hierarchy type manner. Broad categories of information, like animal, are subdivided into narrower categories, like “bird” and “mammal”, which in turn are subdivided into still narrower categories. Cognitive economy is the information stored at one level of the hierarchy that is not repeated at other levels.
• Studies retrieval, subjects are given simple statements and are asked to response true or false as quickly as possible. Researchers measure the reaction time, the time between presentation of a statement and the response. The assumption is the longer it takes for you to respond to a stimulus, the more mental steps you had to go through to make that response. |
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Term
| important elements of smith's feature comparison model |
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Definition
• Features are listed with each concept; not hierarchical, not a network. Based on defining and characteristic features (a bird has to have wings; not all birds have to fly). No cognitive economy: important features stored with each concept.
• Verification by feature comparison: 2 stages. Stage I: fast check of randomly selected subset of features (defining or characteristic): high overlap=match low overlap no math. Moderate overlap= go to stage 2. Stage 2 is a slower systematic check of all defining features.
• Can account for robin=bird faster than robin=animal (category effect), robin=bird faster than chicken=bird (typicality effect.
• CANNOT account for how to determine defining features and distinguishing between similar categories. |
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Term
| important elements of spreading activation/semantic relatedness model |
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Definition
• Network: nodes and pathways- concept of a bird, concept of a chicken; pathways between these nodes. Spreading activation, and takes into account typicality, etc. NO cognitive economy: redundant. Associations (links) based on semantic relatedness, not hierarchical. Instead of having all kinds of birds accessible equally, robin is more accessible and known than an emu.
• Can account for semantic relatedness effects, typicality effects, semantic priming effects. Implications: allows for “fuzzy categories”, strength of association is important. Stronger association between robins and birds because we’ve experienced that, as opposed to emus and birds. Depends on experience. When one piece of information is retrieved, other related information is too. When you think about birds, you might be partially activating other types of birds. Might not be conscious but is partially active. |
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Term
| how can the collins hierarchical model account (or not account) for the typicality effect? |
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Definition
| Collins hierarchical model CANNOT account for typicality effects, because all the items at any level of the hierarchy (e.g., within bird category) are treated equally. Since sentence verification requires following the links, and there is only one link between robin and bird, but also only one between ostrich and bird, robin and ostrich should be responded to equally quickly. |
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Term
| how can the smith's feature comparison model account (or not account) for the typicality effect? |
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Definition
| Smith's feature comparison doesn't use links, verification is done by looking at the overlap of features. This approach DOES explain the typicality effect, because robin will share more features with the category bird than an ostrich will (the latter being much bigger than other birds and having wings but not being able to fly, for example). |
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Term
| how can the semantic relatedness/spreading activation model account (or not account) for the typicality effect? |
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Definition
| The semantic relatedness/spreading activation model also DOES account for typicality, because the links between concepts in that network are based on the strength of association. For most of us, we have more experience with robins, and so when the concept of BIRD is retrieved, there will be more spreading activation to robin than ostrich. |
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Term
| define category level effect |
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Definition
| example: robin=bird faster than robin=animal. closer together in the hierarchy. |
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Term
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Definition
| example: robin=bird faster than chicken=bird because robin shares more features in the category of bird than chicken. |
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Term
| define semantic priming effect |
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Definition
| occurs when a concept is easier to retrieve from memory (or perceive) because a related concept has already been presented. Information is organized in semantic memory on the basis of meaning and associations. Spreading activation to related concepts helps speed retrieval of information. Indicates that activation passes between nodes. |
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Term
| why is semantic priming important? |
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Definition
| because automatic spreading activation and expectations influence retrieval of concepts. |
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Term
| give an example of semantic priming and what the findings suggest about the retrieval of information from semantic memory |
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Definition
| participants are shown two letter strings and must push one buttons if both are words and another button if one or both are not words (marb). When both letter strings are words, response times are faster when the words are semantically related (doctor-nurse) than when they are not (radio-nurse). A straightforward interpretation is that when participants saw the word doctor, the node representing the concept became active and immediately passed activation to all semantically related concepts, including nurse. When participants read the word nurse, the concept representing it was already somewhat active so it was easier for them to identify the word. |
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Term
| define declarative memory |
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Definition
| supports conscious memory of facts and personal events. |
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Term
| give an example of declarative memory |
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Definition
| knowing America declared its independence in 1776, what you did on your last birthday. |
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Term
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Definition
| makes representations of concepts more available for use because they have been used recently (repetition priming). |
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Term
| give an example of priming. |
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Definition
| reading the word “cherry” makes you slightly faster in reading the word again a short time later, or makes it more likely that you will say “cherry” if someone asks you to name a fruit. |
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Term
| define motor skill learning |
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Definition
| the improved accuracy of movements in space or time as a consequence of practice. |
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Term
| give an example of motor skill learning |
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Definition
| its how we learn to hit a golf ball or drive a car; our efficiency in walking and writing all depend on motor skill and these tasks would be very slow without it. |
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Term
| define classical conditioning |
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Definition
| using an unconditioned stimulus to create a conditioned response. |
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Term
| give an example of classical conditioning with a human. |
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Definition
| the unconditioned stimulus is a puff of air to the eye, which leads to an unconditioned response, blinking. The conditioned stimulus (a tone) is paired with the air puff until the conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response (blinking). |
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Term
| define emotional conditioning |
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Definition
| classical conditioning situation in which one of the unconditioned responses is an emotion. |
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Term
| give an example of emotional conditioning |
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Definition
| a participant might be shown different color slides, and each time the slide depicts a snake, the participant is given a mild electric shock. In times, pictures of snakes will come to elicit fear. |
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Term
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Definition
| a memory representation containing general information about an object or an event. It contains information representative of a type of event rather than of a single event. |
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Term
| how can schemas affect recall of stories or events, positively and negatively? |
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Definition
| • Schemas can affect recall of stories positively by the prior knowledge of what usually happens in that scene, so it must have happened in that scene. It can help with retrieval. It can effect stories negatively because you add things that didn’t actually happen, confusing the person you’re telling the story to. |
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Term
| describe the study of the war of the ghosts and the results. |
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Definition
| • War of the Ghosts: the story had elements that would have been unfamiliar to English schoolboys in the 1930’s. The participants added details to put logical connections between events, omitted other details, and changed unfamiliar terms to ones they knew better. |
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Term
| how does the notion of schema explain the findings from the war of the ghosts? |
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Definition
| The notion of schema explains these findings because they were influenced by their schema of what a story is supposed to be like. |
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Term
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Definition
| a source of forgetting. There is a stronger link from a cue to some undesired memory than to the target, and the cue therefore always calls up the undesired memory. Makes it seem as if the memory is hidden or covered by another memory. |
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Term
| give example of occlusion |
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Definition
| when you move to a new city, whenever you are asked what your phone number is, your old phone number may consistently intrude, making it difficult to remember the new number. |
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Term
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Definition
| proposes that the link between a cue and a target memory spontaneously decays over time. If you rehearse the memory again it will be “refreshed”, but all links are breaking down so refreshing doesn’t prevent decay: it simply revives the link. |
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Term
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Definition
| older memories that began with more strength, like a first grade teachers name, could be easier to retrieve than new memories that have less strength. |
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Term
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Definition
| can suppress the unwanted, competing memories to keep them from being retrieved instead of the target memory. Ability not to remember irrelevant information. |
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Term
| give example of inhibition |
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Definition
| subjects learn lists of category-exemplar pairs (e.g. fruit-apple, drink-coffee) and afterwards are asked to recall half of the words from half the categories (fruit-___) at the end subjects are asked to recall all the words they studied, results show recall is worst for those that belong to practiced categories but were not themselves retrieved, as though these words had been actively inhibited to retrieve other words from the same category. |
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Term
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Definition
| active forgetting of an episode for the sake of self-protection: remembering it would be too painful. |
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Term
| give example of repression |
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Definition
| erasing getting raped from your mind, or an awful car accident. |
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Term
| define analog code and give example |
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Definition
preserve spatial relationship among elements, or visual qualities (color, size)
Example: physical map |
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Term
| define propositional code and give example |
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Definition
abstract, not tied to a perceptual stimulus, no spatial or physical features
Example: driving directions to sugar house park from the University of Utah. |
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Term
| define dual code hypothesis |
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Definition
| The Dual Code Hypothesis refers to the idea that concepts can be represented in either a verbal or a visual code. Words representing abstract concepts can only be represented in a verbal code, while concrete words can be represented in both types of code, which increases the likelihood that the concrete word will be recalled. |
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Term
| define shepard mental rotation study |
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Definition
| Shepard and Metzler were interested in whether people can manipulate a visual image in memory in the same way we do an object in space. In one study they presented two pictures of 3-D objects, one rotated in space relative to the other, and asked if the two configurations matched. The more rotated in space one object was, the longer it took to respond. This suggests that we can hold and manipulate mental images in memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| scanning of images is a functional cognitive process, thought moving between two locations is tied to actual distance (spatial relationship between elements is preserved). Brain imaging work shows that the same brain areas are activated during perception and imagery. Kosslyn: imagine a rabbit next to an elephant vs. next to a fly. “does the rabbit have a pink nose?” faster responses if the rabbit is next to the fly… the image is bigger and easier to inspect |
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Term
| what is evidence supporting use of imagery in terms of brain studies? |
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Definition
| the active process, especially with imagery, creates a distinctive record and ensures storage. Images provide effective retrieval cues. Brain imaging studies support link between perception and imaging. |
|
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Term
| define visual imagery task |
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Definition
| concerned with what things look like (e.g. color judgments) |
|
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Term
| define spatial imagery task |
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Definition
| concerned with where something is located in space (e.g. how close two things are) |
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Term
| example of visual imagery task |
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Definition
| judge whether an animal has a long tail proportional to its body size, name the color of a common object that has a characteristic color (football), compare sizes of two objects that are close in size, participant hears three state names and must say which two states are the most similar in shape. |
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Term
| example of spatial imagery task |
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Definition
| participant must say whether a rotated letter is mirror reversed, participant judges whether an arrow, if continued, would hit one of two distant dots, classify corners of a block letter as to whether each is at the top, bottom, or middle of the letter, participant hears three state names and must say which two states are the closest together on the U.S. map. |
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Term
| define image generation and give example |
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Definition
| images are generated one part at a time. Example: a study showed that images with more parts take longer to generate with fewer parts. It’s easier to write L as opposed to G. |
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Term
| define image maintenance and give example |
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Definition
| once an image is generated, it does not remain in memory unless it is actively maintained, and that requires attention. Example: look at a photo. Now image that photo and continue reading. The image disappears if you divert attention from it. it fades very quickly and needs constant refreshing. |
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Term
| define image inspection and give example |
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Definition
| processes engaged to better know the visual characteristics of an image. Example: when looking at a painting, you scan the painting, looking at different parts, and perhaps moving closer to an area to get a good look at it. |
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Term
| define image transformation and give example |
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Definition
| used to examine the consequences of a physical action before we go to the trouble of taking the physical action. example: will your car fit in that tight parking space? is this brick the right size to prop up the sofa with the missing leg? |
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