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| problem solving is about how the problem is represented in the mind and how it must be restructered |
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changing representation of the problem
example: circle problem - change the triangle to a rectangle to picture it easier |
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sudden realization of a problems solution
aha moment
example: triangle and chain problems |
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| gradual process to finding the solution ex: algebra problems |
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| insight/noninsight ratings |
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"warmth" ratings
insight - low ratings then jumps up before solution
noninsight - gradually increases |
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| restricting the use of an object to its familiar functions |
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| participants asked to use various objects to mount a candle on a corkboard without getting wax dripped on the floor - shows functional fixedness |
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| newell simon approach to problem solving |
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| problems are seen in terms of an initial state and a goal state |
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conditions at the beginning of the problem
tower of hanoi example: all three discs on the left peg |
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solution to the problem
tower example: all three discs on the right peg |
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conditions after each step is made toward solving a problem
tower example: after moving the small disc to the right peg there are two other discus on the left peg and the small one is on the righ |
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actions that take the problem from one state to another. usually governed by rules.
tower rule example: a larger disc cant be placed on top of a smaller one |
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| all possible states that could occur when solving a problem |
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a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states
tower example: establishing subgoals, each of which moves the solution closer to the goal state |
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small goals that help create intermediate states that are closer to the goal.
may appear to increase the distance to the goal state but in the long run can result in the shortest path to the goal
tower example: to free up the medium sized disc, we need to move the small disc from the middle peg back to the peg on the left. |
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| situationally produced mental set |
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| using a previous solution to new problems and overlooking easier solutions |
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| Acrobat problem and Reverse Acrobat problem |
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| reverse acrobat problem is harder to do because of tacit knowledge in top-down process (defies what we know about the world) |
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| report aloud what you’re doing, often aids in problem solving |
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| analogical problem solving |
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| usingthe solution to a similar problem to guide solution of a new problem |
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| solving analogical transfer |
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| participants who are trying to solve a target problem are presented with a problem or a story called the source problem or source story that shares some similarities with the target problem and illustrates a way to solve the target problem |
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| cant remove tumor but low intensity doesnt do enough and high intensity ruins healthy tissue |
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| underlying principle that governs the solution - why you chose what you did |
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| Steps to solve a problem : (Gick & Holyoak) |
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Notice relationships: must be structural and not surface
Map source-to-target correspondences: figuring out which thing in one problem relates to the which thing in the other problem
Apply the mapping: examples- radiation problem, fortress problem, and light bulb problems |
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| how experts solve problems, experts solve field-related problems faster than novices |
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| differences between experts and beginners |
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-Amount of knowledge
-Organization of knowledge: experts organize by structural features, not surface level of function
-Use of time: Experts- sit there and appear to be solving problem very slowly, spend more time analyzing problem by taking apart question. Novices- rushing to answer the problem. |
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- making inferences
-process that can lead to decisions
- process of drawing conclusions about and beyond information you currently have |
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series of statements (syllogisms) that lead to definite conclusions
based on internal consistency of the statements
~ general (theory) → specific (hypothesis)
theory leads to example. newtons law says what goes up must come down. if i kick a ball up, itll come back down. |
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consideration of specific evidence that leads to probably conclusion
based on ability to account for the evidence
~ specific (observations/data) → general (theory/principle)
ive noticed something, which leads me to make an assumption about it (when i kick a ball up, it comes back down. next time i kick a ball up, it will come back down) |
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3 statements
Premise 1
Premise 2
Conclusion |
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~ categories-- all, none, some
~ All birds have wings
Winged animals can fly
△ All birds can fly
** Valid but not true |
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~ if, then
~p = antecedent (cause)
~ q= consequent (effect) |
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| does it logically stem from the premise |
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| give 2 premises and a conclusion, evaluate the validity of the conclusion |
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| 2 premises given, asks for a conclusion (produce it) |
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p, therefore q
premise 1: if p then q
premise 2: P
conclusion: Q |
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not p, therefore q
q therefore p |
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| global conditions, flase consequences |
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| when we reach a conclusion and it matches what i already believe, im more likely to make an error |
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| not q, therefore not p (valid) |
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| in order to test something you need to try to disconfirm it - 4 cards problem |
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| not looking for other solutions |
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| concrete task (beer/soda/age) is easier than abstract task (even/odd/vowel/consonant) |
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| pragamatic reasoning schema |
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| a way of thinking about cause and effect in the world thats learned as part of experiencing everyday life |
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| if a person satisfies condition A then he or she gets to carry out action be (if you are 21 then you can dirnk) |
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| evolutionary perspective on cognition |
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| we can trace many properties of our minds to the evolutionary principles of natural selection |
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| an important aspect of human behavior is the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both |
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| findings of wason four card problem |
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| the context within which conditional reasoning occurs makes a big difference (better reasoning) |
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| contributors to the strength of an inductive argument |
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| representativeness of observations (crows from 2 states doesnt equal crows from all states), number of observations, quality of evidence (the sun will rise is less strong than because the earth rotates the sun will appear to rise) |
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| events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable that events that are less easily remembered. |
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| occur when a correlation between two events appears to exist but in reality theres no correlation or it is much wearker than it is assumed to be. |
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| representativeness heuristic |
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| the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resembles the properties we usually associate with class B |
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| relative proportion of different classes in the population |
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| the probability of a conjunction of 2 events (a and b) cannot be higher than the probability of either A or B by themselves |
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| tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and to overlook information that argues against it |
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| assumption that people are basically rational so if they have all of the relevant information they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility |
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| outcomes that achieve a person's goals |
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| emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome |
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| emotions that are experienced at the time a decision is being made |
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| integral immediate emotions |
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| emotions that are associated with the act of making a decision (anxiety when deciding if they should choose the money during who wants to be a millionaire) |
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| incidental immediate emotions |
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| emotions that was unrelated to the decision but still affect it (more likely to choose a college on a sunny day tour) |
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| opt-in vs opt-out procedures |
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| taking an active step (choosing to be an organ donor) vs automatic inclusion unless you request otherwise (everyones an organ donor unless they say they dont want to be) |
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| decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated |
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| causes perseveration and poor planning ability, resulting in poor performance on everyday tasks |
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