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| processes of mentally representing and manipulating some aspects of the world...this describes _____ |
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| cognitive processes that are used to overcome obstacle and reach a goal, especially when there is no immediate apparent way for reaching the goal...this describes _____ |
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| cognitive processes used to make inferences and draw conclusions from knowledge; can be a part of problem solving... this describes _____ |
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| a situation with no immediate apparent/standard/routine way of reaching a goal... this describes ____ |
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| what are the 3 states of problems? |
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1. initial - where you are now
2. means of transformation - mental actions to solve the problem
3. goal state - where you want to end up |
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| characteristics of ___-defined problems include: clear initial state, constraining rules, and goal |
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| characteristics of ___-defined problems include: one or more aspects of the problem are not clearly specified |
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| tower of hanoi is an example of ___-defined problem |
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| a maze is an example of ___-defined problem |
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| ending a war is an example of ___-defined problem |
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| getting a cookie out of the cookie jar without getting caught is an example of ___-defined problem |
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| finding an apartment is an example of ___-defined problem |
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| writing a book is an example of ____-defined problem |
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| this type of ill-defined problem has the following characteristics: despite all unknowns, the answer seems to come all of a sudden in a flash of understanding; solving this type of problem requires a period of "incubation" |
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| a visual problems, riddles, and anagrams are examples of what type of problem? |
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| insight problems (which are a type of ill-defined problem) |
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| ____ is the set of all possible choices between initial and goal states; includes the initial state, all possible intermediate and goal states; # of possible solutions can be overwhelming- many are too large! |
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| ___ are rules of thumb that often lead to correct answers |
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| what are the 3 problem solving heuristics? |
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Definition
| hill-climbing, means-end analysis,random search |
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| this problem solving heuristic involves: looking one move ahead and choosing the move that most closely resembles the goal state; sometimes you need to take a step backward in order to continue forward |
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| this type of problem solving heuristic involves: breaking the problem down into sub-problems which can be further broken down into even smaller units so you can solve the problem one little piece at a time. |
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| means-end analysis heuristic |
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| this problem solving heuristic involves trial and error until the goal is reached. it is the simplest and least cognitively demanding heuristic. |
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| problem solving involves working memory and executive processes that activate which 3 areas of the brain? |
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| parietal cortex, premotor cortex, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |
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| ____ is defined as: specialized knowledge within a particular domain; flexibility in diagnosing new problems; set of skills to solve new problems; usually has to do with extensive training/experience |
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the following are characteristics of ____:
organize info based on surface; poor chunking; backward search;diagnosis to symptoms; slower; more errors |
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the following are characteristics of ___:
organize info base don deep structure, efficient chunking, forward search, symptoms to diagnosis, fast; accurate |
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| what are the 3 types of reasoning? |
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Definition
| analogical, inductive, deductive |
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| ___ reasoning= thinking of a problem with similar characteristics that has been solved before; has 5 stages |
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| 5 stages of analogical reasoning |
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Definition
1. retrieval
2. mapping
3. evaluation
4. abstraction
5. prediction |
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(stage of analogical reasoning)...
holding target in working memory while accessing a similar, more familiar example from long-term memory |
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(stage of analogical reasoning)...
while holding both target and source in working memory, align target and source to map the features of source onto target |
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(stage of analogical reasoning)...
decide if analogy will be useful |
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(stage of analogical reasoning)...
isolating the structure shared by source and target |
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(stage of analogical reasoning)...
develop hypotheses about the behavior or characteristics of the target from what is know about the source |
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| analogy is more difficult when ... |
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| source and target share only structural similarity |
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| analogy is more obvious when... |
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| source and target share structural and surface features |
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| people use ___ features to construct their own analogies |
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| people use ___ features to construct someone else's analogies |
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| analogical reasoning involves what 3 parts of the brain? |
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Definition
prefrontal cortex,
inferior parietal cortex,
anterior insula |
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| ___ reasoning = drawing inference from specific examples to broad generalization |
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| when talking about reasoning, the fact you start with, something like "my cat has a tail" is called a ____ |
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| when talking about reasoning, the inference you make based on the facts you know, something like "all cats have tails" is called a ____ |
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(inductive reasoning)
category-based inductions can be ___ or ___ |
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Definition
general (known instances-->all instances)
specific (one category member-->another category member) |
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| the mastermind game is an example of ___ induction |
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| (inductive reasoning) ____-____ model works for both specific and general induction; the more similar the premise categories to the conclusion, the stronger the argument; the better the premise categories cover the category contained by the conclusion, the stronger the argument |
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Definition
| similarity-coverage model |
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Term
inductive reasoning and the brain...
involves working memory in the ______ |
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Definition
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inductive reasoning and the brain...
involves Long Term Memory (storage and retrieval) in the ____ and _____ |
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Definition
| medial temporal lobes and parahippocampal gyri |
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Term
inductive reasoning and the brain...
involves negative feedback in the ____, ___, and ___ |
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Definition
ventromedial prefrontal cortex,
caudate,
thalamus |
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Term
inductive reasoning and the brain...
involves plausible hypotheses in the _____ and the _____ |
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Definition
| parahippocampal gyri and caudate |
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Term
inductive resoning and the brain...
involves implausable hypotheses in the ____, ____, and ____ |
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Definition
anterior cingulate,
precuneus,
left prefrontal cortex |
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Term
| ____ reasoning = making inferences from observations of a general phenomenon to a specific case |
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Definition
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all men are mortal -> socrates is a man -> socrates is mortal
this is an example of ____ ____ |
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(deductive reasoning)
a _____ is an argument that consists of 2 premises and 1 conclusion |
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(deductive reasoning)
____ syllogisms = relations between 2 categories of things like:
premise 1 - all apples are fruits
premise 2 - some apples are fruits
conclusion - some fruits are red |
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relations in terms of categorical syllogisms...
____ ____ is when all As are Bs
ex: all dogs are living creatures |
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relations in terms of categorical syllogisms...
___ ___ is when no As are Bs
ex: no animals are plants |
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relations in terms of categorical syllogisms...
___ ___ is when some As are Bs
ex: some fruits are red |
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relations in terms of categorical syllogisms...
___ __ is when some As are not Bs
ex; some fruits are not yellow |
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(deductive reasoning)
___ syllogisms = occurrence of one event is conditional on the occurrence of another event.
ex: if i study, then i'll get an A |
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Definition
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Term
| if premises are true and inference is valid, _________________________. |
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Definition
| the conclusion CANNOT be false |
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Term
| a conclusion is true if_____ and _______ |
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Definition
| inference is valid and both premises are true |
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Term
| in deductive thinking, ___ ____ occur due to errors in the structure form or format of the premise-conclusion relation |
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Definition
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Term
| 2 kinds of form errors are ____ and ____ |
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Definition
atmospheric effect (categorical reasoning)
and matching bias (conditional reasoning) |
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Term
| this type of form error happens when the premise and conclusion contain the same qualifier "all" , "some", "none" |
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Definition
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the type of form error in this example:
-no humans are cars
-no cars are doctors
-no humans are doctors |
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Definition
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| this type of form error happens when accepting a conclusion as valid if it contains the syntactiv structure of the premise or some of the terms of the premise; certain objects in the premise draw our attention; we have a hard time dealing with negatives; working memory is limited |
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Definition
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| in deductive reasoning ___ ___ occur when content of syllogisms is overly influential; when we become concerned with the truth of premises more than the validity of drawing an inference |
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Definition
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| this content error says we are more likely to accept a "believable" than "unbelievable" conclusion |
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Definition
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| theories of deductive reasoning include _____ an d____ |
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Definition
| rule based and mental models |
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| ______ theories of deductive reasoning say that we naturally possess a logical system that enables us to make deductions |
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Definition
| rule-based theories of deduction |
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| ______ theories of deduction say that we have internal representations of real of imaginary situations that can be derives from information such as that in syllogisms |
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Definition
| mental model theories of deduction |
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Term
deductive reasoning and the brain...
involves working memory and executive attention in the _____ |
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Definition
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deductive reasoning and the brain...
involves spatial manipulations in the _____ |
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Definition
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deductive reasoning and the brain...
involves monitoring goals in the _____ |
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