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| the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment |
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| the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events |
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| analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information |
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| information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations |
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| Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret |
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| An organized whole. Gestalt psychologists empasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes |
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| The organization of th evisual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground) |
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| the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups |
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| The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the imagies that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance |
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| a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and yound animals |
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| A binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance. The greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object |
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| Depth cues, such as interporsition and linear perspective available to either eye alone |
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| Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change |
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| Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wave-lengths reflected by the objects. |
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| The ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field |
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| All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
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| A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people |
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| A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin). |
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| A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solvinga particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier-but also more error-prone than use of heuristics |
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| A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms |
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| A sudden realization of a problems solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions |
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| A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. |
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| the principle (which Piaget believed to ba a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects |
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| in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking anothers point of view |
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| People's ideas about their own and others' mental states-about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict |
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| Concrete Operational Stage |
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| In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7-11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events |
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| In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts |
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| The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information |
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| A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test |
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| A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test |
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| A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again |
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| The process of information into the memory system- for example, by extracting meaning |
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| The process of retaining encoded information over time |
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| The process of getting information out of memory storage |
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| The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions |
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| The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system |
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| Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten. |
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| The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences |
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| A newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory |
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| Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (also called declarative memory) |
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| Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort |
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| Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space and time, and frequency, and of well-learned information such as word meanings |
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| Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory) |
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| A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second |
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| A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds |
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| Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically |
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| Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
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| The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice |
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| Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning |
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| Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words |
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| Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention |
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| Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory) |
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| Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two concsious memory systems (the other is semantic memory) |
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| A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage |
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| The neural storage of a long-term memory |
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| A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
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| Long-term Potentiation (LPT) |
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| An increase in a cell's firing potential after breif, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory |
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| The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood |
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| Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primary effect) items in a list |
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| The sense or act of hearing |
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| The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second) |
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| A tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency |
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| The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the low eardrum on the cochlea's oval window |
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| A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cohlear fluid tigger nerve impulses |
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| The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs |
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| Sensorineural hearing loss |
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| the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness; caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves |
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| Less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea |
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| A device for converting sounds in to electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea |
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| In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated |
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| In hearing, the theory that the reate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also claled temporal theory) |
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