-Journal articles

-Scholarly texts

-Conference papers

-Research books

-Textbooks

-Books

-Magazines, TV, other media...

-Accuracy

-Academic Dishonesty

-Cheating

-Fabrication

-Facilitating dishonesty

-Plagiarism

-Multiple submission

-Abuse of academic materials

-Deception & misrepresentation

-Electronic dishonesty

-Carelessness

-Office for Human Research Protections

-A unit of the U.S Department of Health and Human Services

-Scientific responsibility

-Consideration of ethical issues that may arise from relationship with participants

-Researchers are responsible to their profession and discipline. Guidelines must be followed

-Responsibility to develop and conduct research projects that will yield knowledge worth knowing

-A set of regulations in regards to research participants

-Adopted by 17 federal departments and agencies

-Beneficence

-Respect for persons

-Justice

-The well-being of participants is protected

-Long term benefits must outweigh the minimal risk the participants might encounter

(1) Treating individuals as capable of making decisions

(2)Protecting those who are not capable of making their own decisions

-Institutional Review Boards or human review committees

-Primary role is to determine if the rights and welfare of research participants are adequately protected

-Researchers purposely mislead the participants

-Should be used only if no other way exists to collect the data & no harm is done to participants

(1) Good opportunity to obtain participants' observations on taking part in the research project

(2) Gives participants an opportunity to ask questions and express their reactions to participating in the research

(1) Indicate with quotation marks when they are using the exact words of someone else

(2)Citation and reference information must be given when summarizing or paraphrasing the work of others

(3)Complete citation and reference information must be given when mentioning or making reference to the ideas or significant contribution of others

Title

Abstract

Intro

Literary Review

Methods

Data Analysis

Discussion

References

Appendices

-Indicates nature & direction of relationship

"The more frequent a person's exposure to reality television, the lower their level of self-esteem."

States that a relationship or difference will occur but does not state the direction.

"There is a relationship between exposure to reality television and level of self-esteem."

-Face validity

-Content validity

-Criterion validity

-Measurement is correlated with an external measurement

-Concurrent Validity

-Predictive Validity

-Generalizability

-Can the results of the test be generalized from the sample to the target population?

-Repeatability

-Consistent each time its performed

-Can be measured

-Holsti's formula

-Scott's  ∏

-Krippendorf's α

-Respondents may answer untruthfully

-Questions are biased or irrelevant

-Researcher influences participants

-Ecological Falacy (generalizing to the wrong population)

-Drawing conclusions from non-representative data

-Oversimplifying inconclusive results

-Probability Sampling

-A sample is drawn so that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

-Probability Sampling

-Start with a random point & select every k^th case following the point

-More efficient than simple random sample

-May introduce bias

-Probability Sampling

-Divide population into strata (shared characteristics) then draw a simple/systematic sample of each strata

-Sample strata should be representative of the population's strata

-Probability Sampling

-Select neutral characteristic (such as cities) and divide the population into groups or clusters based on that characteristic. Draw a random sample of clusters and sample within each cluster.

-Used for populations that are geographically dispersed and where a sampling frame is impractical

-Non-probability sampling

-Identify a small number of participants and ask each participant to recruit other participants

-Non-probability Sampling

-Select participants based on a particular characteristic

-What do people know/think/do?

-What are people's attitudes/beliefs/values?

-How are people's actions related to their attitudes?

-What are the differences between people in some respect?

-Inexpensive

-Can obtain a large quantity of current information

-Provides quantitative data

-People lie.

-Difficult to obtain representative sample

-People often refuse to participate in surveys

-Difficult to write good questions

-Seeks to find out relationships between variables

-Correlational design

-Can prove correlation NOT causation

-Describes the characteristics of the sample at one point in time

-Misleading if done at an unrepresentative time

-Only applies to that specific time

-Describes the characteristics of the sample across time

-Trend Study

-Cohort Study

-Panel Study

Asks the sames questions used in the previous study for each time interval but does not use the same participants

First study: People who graduated college in 2012

Five years later...

Second study: Same questions. People who graduated college

Uses respondents from the same "cohort" or group each time the study is performed but not the same EXACT respondents

First study: Students A, B, & C from the class of 2012

Five years later...

Second study: Students D, E, & F from the class of 2012

Uses the same exact participants at each time interval the study is done

First Study: Students A, B, & C from class of 2012

Five years later...

Second study: Students A, B, & C from class of 2012

-Intro

-Instructions

-Questions

-Closing

-Systematic

-Quantitative

-Objective

-Analysis of communication content

-Describe CMCN content

-Test hypothesis of message characteristics

-Compare media content to real world

-Assess the image of particular groups in society

-Establish a starting point for media effect studies

-Formulate hypothesis

-Define population

-Select sample

-Define unit of analysis (what is actually counted? Articles, frames, etc.)

-Construct equal, mutually exclusive, exhaustive coding categories. (MTV VJ race: black, asian, white)

-Establish quantification system (how will you measure your variables?)

-Train coders and conduct pilot (Prepare codebook)

-Code content

-Analyze data

-Write report

-Some data are easy to collect (computerized)

-Only method to research CONTENT

-Unobtrusive

-Some data are difficult to collect

-No cause-effect relationship

-Categories may be hard to operationalize

-Hard to obtain a random sample

-Evidence of causality (not PROOF)

-Control of environment, variable, subjects

-Cost (vs some other methods)

-Replication (often with minor variations)

-Cumulative knowledge (theory building)

-Artificiality (alerts participants and provides potential for bias)

-Researcher bias

-Limited scope (size of sample too restrictive for some topics)

-External validity (generalizability)

-Realistic setting

-Nonreactivity

-Can be inexpensive

-Lack of control of participants

-Lack of control of circumstances

-Manipulation of an independent variable

-Keeping other influences constant

-Randomization: Random assignment of participants to groups

-a "natural" experiment

-Independent variable varies & cannot be manipulated by the researcher (gender)

-Select the setting

-Select a design

-Operationalize the variables

-Select and assign (randomize) participants to groups: treatment group & control group

-Conduct a pilot study

-Administer the experiment

-Analyze and interpret the results

Campbell & Stanley Notation:

R = _________

X = _________

O = _________

Temporal precedence or order assumed: e.g = ______________

R = randomization

X = treatment or manipulation of IV

O = observation of DV

Temporal precedence = t₁ t₂ t₃ t₄

-Randomization

-2 groups: treatment group/control group

-DV is measured in both groups before stimuli is applied to the treatment group after which DV is measured again in the exact same manner with same participants as before. 

R       O₁        X        O₂

R       O₁                 O₂

-Randomization

-2 groups: treatment group/control group

-DV is measured only AFTER stimuli is applied to the treatment group

-Allows researcher to assume any changes in treatment group are due to stimuli

R         X        O2

R                  O2

-Randomization

-Treatment groups are based on two or more independent variables

-Allows researcher to test for complex cause-effect relationships that can't be tested with only one IV

-Allows researcher to test for the effects of each IV or how IVs combine to influence the DV

[image]

Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Control Group

O1        X        O2

O1                 O2

Interrupted Time Series Design

O₁   O₂   O₃   O₄   X   O₅   O₆   O₇   O₈

Covariation 

Temporal Precedence

All other causes ruled out

-Number of cases

-Frequency

-Percentages

-Measures of Dispersion

        -Range

        -Standard Deviation

        -Variance

-Measures of Central Tendency

        -Mean

        -Mode

        -Median

-Tests for correlation or relationship

-CANNOT prove causal relationship

-Pearson's R or Spearman

-Test of differences

-Is there a difference between TWO groups?

ANalysis Of VAriance

-Test of differences

-Is there a difference between THREE or more groups?