Term
|
Definition
| evolutionary relationships among organisms. |
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Term
| evolutionary classification |
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Definition
| the strategy of grouping organisms together based on their evoltionary history. |
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Term
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Definition
| characteristics that appear in revient parts of a lineage but not in its older members. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a diagram that shows the evolutionary relationships among a group of organisms. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| the term for how scientists classify organisms and assign each organism a universally accepted name. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a system of naming organisms where each species is assigned a two part cientific name. |
|
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Term
| what is the order of Linnaeus's hierarchial system of classification from largest to smallest? |
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Definition
| kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species |
|
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Term
| List the domains and list their what they are composed of |
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Definition
| The three domains are the domain Eukarya, which is composed of protists, fungi, plants, and animals; the domain Bacteria, which corresponds to the kingdom Eubacteria; and the domain Archaea, which corresponds to the kingdom Archaebacteria |
|
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Term
| Characterize domain bacteria |
|
Definition
| The members of the domain Bacteria are unicellular and prokaryotic. Their cells have thick, rigid cell walls that surround a cell membrane. The cell walls contain a substance known as peptidoglycan. The domain Bacteria corresponds to the kingdom Eubacteria. These bacteria are ecologically diverse, ranging from free-living soil organisms to deadly parasites. Some photosynthesize, while others do not. Some need oxygen to survive, while others are killed by oxygen. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Also unicellular and prokaryotic, members of the domain Archaea live in some of the most extreme environments you can imagine—volcanic hot springs, brine pools, and black organic mud totally devoid of oxygen. Indeed, many of these bacteria can survive only in the absence of oxygen. Their cell walls lack peptidoglycan, and their cell membranes contain unusual lipids that are not found in any other organism. The domain Archaea corresponds to the kingdom Archaebacteria |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| it consists of all organisms that have a nucleus |
|
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Term
| What are the four kingdoms that are part of Domain Eukarya? |
|
Definition
| Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia |
|
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Term
| What does the kingdom Protista consist of? |
|
Definition
| The kingdom Protista is composed of eukaryotic organisms that cannot be classified as animals, plants, or fungi. Of the six kingdoms, Protista is the least satisfying classification, because its members display the greatest variety. Most protists are unicellular organisms, but some, such as the multicellular algae, are not. Some protists are photosynthetic, while others are heterotrophic. Some share characteristics with plants, others with fungi, and still others with animals. |
|
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Term
| What does the kingdom Fungi consist of? |
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Definition
| Members of the kingdom Fungi are heterotrophs. Most feed on dead or decaying organic matter. Unlike other heterotrophs, these fungi secrete digestive enzymes into their food source. They then absorb the smaller food molecules into their bodies. The most recognizable fungi, including mushrooms, are multicellular. Some fungi, such as yeasts, are unicellular. |
|
|
Term
| What does the domain Plantae consist of? |
|
Definition
| Members of the kingdom Plantae are multicellular organisms that are photosynthetic autotrophs. In other words, they carry out photosynthesis. Plants are nonmotile—they cannot move from place to place. They also have cell walls that contain cellulose. The plant kingdom includes cone-bearing and flowering plants as well as mosses and ferns. Although older classification systems regard multicellular algae as plants, in this book we group algae with the protists. |
|
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Term
| What does the kingdom Animalia consist of? |
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Definition
| Members of the kingdom Animalia are multicellular and heterotrophic. The cells of animals do not have cell walls. Most animals can move about, at least for some part of their life cycle. As you will see in later chapters, there is incredible diversity within the animal kingdom, and many species of animals exist in nearly every part of the planet. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| unicellular organisms that lack a nucleus |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the two different types of cell walls found in eubacteria? How do scientists tell them apart? |
|
Definition
| Two different types of cell walls are found in eubacteria. A method called Gram staining is used to tell them apart. The Gram stain consists of two dyes—one violet (the primary stain) and the other red (the counterstain). The violet stain, applied first, stains peptidoglycan cell walls. This is followed by an alcohol treatment that tends to wash out the stain. Gram-positive bacteria have thick peptidoglycan walls that retain the dark color of the violet stain even after the alcohol wash. Gram-negative bacteria have much thinner walls inside an outer lipid layer. Alcohol dissolves the lipid and removes the dye from the walls of these bacteria. The counterstain then makes these bacteria appear pink or light red. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| spiral and corkscrew shaped prokaryotes |
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Term
|
Definition
| Mycorrhizae Fungi also form mutualistic relationships with plants. Almost half of the tissues of trees are hidden beneath the ground in masses of tangled roots. These roots are woven into a partnership with an even larger web of fungal mycelia. These associations of plant roots and fungi are mycorrhizae (my-koh-RY-zee; singular: mycorrhiza). |
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Term
| What does the fungus provide in a lichen? |
|
Definition
| The fungus, in turn, provides the algae or bacteria with water and minerals that it collects and protects the delicate green cells from intense sunlight. |
|
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Term
| What does the algae or cyanobacteria provide in a lichen? |
|
Definition
| The algae or cyanobacteria carry out photosynthesis, providing the fungus with a source of energy. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Lichens are extremely resistant to drought and cold. Therefore, they can grow in places where few other organisms can survive—on dry, bare rock in deserts and on the tops of mountains. Lichens are able to survive in these harsh environments because of the relationship between the two partner organisms |
|
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Term
| How do plants and fungi benefit from each other? |
|
Definition
| The tiny hyphae of the fungi aid plants in absorbing water and minerals. They do this by producing a network that covers the roots of the plants and increases the effective surface area of the root system. This allows the roots to absorb more water and minerals from the soil. In addition, the fungi release enzymes that free nutrients in the soil. The plants, in turn, provide the fungi with the products of photosynthesis. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Most heterotrophic prokaryotes must take in organic molecules for both energy and a supply of carbon. These prokaryotes are called chemoheterotrophs (kee-moh-HET-ur-oh-trohfs). Most animals, including humans, are chemoheterotrophs. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A smaller group of heterotrophic prokaryotes are called photoheterotrophs (foh-toh-HET-ur-oh-trohfs). These organisms are photosynthetic, using sunlight for energy, but they also need to take in organic compounds as a carbon source. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Other groups of prokaryotes are autotrophs. Some autotrophs, the photoautotrophs (foh-toh-AW-toh-trohfs), use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water to carbon compounds and oxygen in a process similar to that used by green plants. As you might expect, these organisms are found where light is plentiful, such as near the surfaces of lakes, streams, and oceans. One group, the cyanobacteria (sy-uh-noh-bak-TEER-ee-uh), contains a bluish pigment and chlorophyll a, the key pigment in photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria are found throughout the world—in fresh water, salt water, and even on land. In fact, cyanobacteria are often the very first species to recolonize the site of a natural disaster such as a volcanic eruption. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Other prokaryotes can perform chemosynthesis and are called chemoautotrophs (kee-moh-AW-toh-trohfs). Like photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs make organic carbon molecules from carbon dioxide. Unlike photoautotrophs, however, they do not require light as a source of energy. Instead, they use energy directly from chemical reactions involving ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, nitrites, sulfur, or iron. Some chemoautotrophs live deep in the darkness of the ocean. They obtain energy from hydrogen sulfide gas that flows from hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Like all organisms, bacteria need a constant supply of energy. This energy is released by the processes of cellular respiration or fermentation or both. Organisms that require a constant supply of oxygen in order to live are called obligate aerobes. (“Obligate” means the organisms are obliged, or required, by their life processes to live only in that particular way.) Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium that causes tuberculosis, is an obligate aerobe. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Some bacteria, however, do not require oxygen and, in fact, may be killed by it! These bacteria are called obligate anaerobes, and they must live in the absence of oxygen. Clostridium botulinum is an obligate anaerobe found in soil. Because of its ability to grow without oxygen, it can grow in canned food that has not been properly sterilized. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| A third group of bacteria can survive with or without oxygen and are known as facultative anaerobes. (“Facultative” means able to function in different ways depending on their environment.) Facultative anaerobes do not require oxygen but neither are they killed by its presence. Their ability to switch between the processes of cellular respiration and fermentation means that facultative anaerobes are able to live just about anywhere. E. coli is a facultative anaerobe that lives anaerobically in the large intestine and aerobically in sewage or contaminated water. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| When a bacterium has grown so that it has nearly doubled in size, it replicates its DNA and divides in half, producing two identical “daughter” cells. This type of reproduction is known as binary fission. Because binary fission does not involve the exchange or recombination of genetic information, it is an asexual form of reproduction. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Many bacteria are also able to exchange genetic information by a process called conjugation. During conjugation, a hollow bridge forms between two bacterial cells, and genes move from one cell to the other. This transfer of genetic information increases genetic diversity in populations of bacteria. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| When growth conditions become unfavorable, many bacteria form structures called spores. One type of spore, called an endospore, is formed when a bacterium produces a thick internal wall that encloses its DNA and a portion of its cytoplasm. Spores can remain dormant for months or even years while waiting for more favorable growth conditions. The ability to form spores makes it possible for some bacteria to survive harsh conditions that might otherwise kill them. The bacterium Bacillus Anthracis, which causes the disease anthrax is one such bacterium. The ability to form these endospores has led some groups to develop anthrax as a biological warefare agent. |
|
|
Term
| Why are bacteria important? |
|
Definition
| Bacteria are vital to maintaining the living world. Some are producers that capture energy by photosynthesis. Others are decomposers that break the nutrients in dead matter and the atmosphere. Still other bacteria have human uses. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| The process of converting nitrogen gas into a form plants can use is known as nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixation allows nitrogen atoms to continually cycle through the biosphere. |
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|
Term
| Zoomastigina/Zooflagellates |
|
Definition
| Animal-like protists that swim using flagella |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Animal-like protists that use pseudopods for feeding and movement |
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Term
|
Definition
| Animal-like protists that use cilla for feeding and movement |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Animal-like protists who are parasitic and do not move |
|
|
Term
| Euglenophyta/Euglenophytes |
|
Definition
| Plant-like protists that have two flagella but no cell wall |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Plant-like protists that have gold-colored cholorplasts |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Abundant plant-like protists that produce cell walls rich in silicon |
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|
Term
| Pyrrophyta/Dinoflagellates: |
|
Definition
Half heterotropic and half photosynthetic, have 2 flagella and light
up when moved |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Small photosynthetic organisms found near the surface of the ocean |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Algae that contains chlorophyll a and red acc. pig. called phycobilins |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Algae that contains chlorophyll a & c and brown acc. pig. called
fucoxanthin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Algae that contains chlorophyll a & b and shares functions with
plants |
|
|
Term
| Acrasiomycota/Cellular Slime Mold: |
|
Definition
| Cellular slime molds that produces fruiting bodies |
|
|
Term
| Myxomycota/Acellular Slime Mold: |
|
Definition
| A cellular slime molds that form plasmodia |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Water molds that eat dead organic material in water and act as parasites |
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Term
|
Definition
| Fungi that have life cycles that include a zygospore |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Fungi that has an ascus; a reproductive structure that contains spores |
|
|
Term
| Basidiomycota/Club Fungi: |
|
Definition
| Fungi that has a reproductive structure that resembles a club |
|
|
Term
| Deuteromycota/Imperfect Fungi: |
|
Definition
| Fungi that has no discernable reproductive cycle |
|
|
Term
| A typical virus is composed of what? |
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Definition
| A typical virus is composed of a core of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| A virus's protein coat is called its capsid. The capsid includes proteins that enable a virus to enter a host cell. The capsid proteins of a typical virus bind to receptors on the surface of a cell and “trick” the cell into allowing it inside. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Because viruses must bind precisely to proteins on the cell surface and then use a host's genetic system, most viruses are highly specific to the cells they infect. Plant viruses infect plant cells; most animal viruses infect only certain related species of animals; and bacterial viruses infect only certain types of bacteria. Viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages. |
|
|
Term
| What is a lytic infection? |
|
Definition
| In a lytic infection, a virus enters a cell, makes copies of itself, and causes the cell to burst. |
|
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Term
| What is a lysogenic infection? |
|
Definition
| It causes a host cell makes copies of the virus indefinitely. In a lysogenic infection, a virus integrates its DNA into the DNA of the host cell, and the viral genetic information replicates along with the host cell's DNA. Unlike lytic viruses, lysogenic viruses do not lyse the host cell right away. Instead, a lysogenic virus remains inactive for a period of time. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| The viral DNA that is embedded in the host's DNA is called a prophage. The prophage may remain part of the DNA of the host cell for many generations before becoming active. A virus may not stay in the prophage form indefinitely |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Some viruses contain RNA as their genetic information and are called retroviruses. When retroviruses infect a cell, they produce a DNA copy of their RNA. This DNA, much like a prophage, is inserted into the DNA of the host cell. There the retroviruses may remain dormant for varying lengths of time before becoming active, directing the production of new viruses, and causing the death of the host cell. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the two ways that bacteria produce disease> |
|
Definition
| Bacteria produce disease in one of two general ways. Some bacteria damage the cells and tissues of the infected organism directly by breaking down the cells for food. Other bacteria release toxins (poisons) that travel throughout the body interfering with the normal activity of the host. |
|
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Term
| What are three methods used to control bacterial growth? |
|
Definition
| sterilization, disinfectants, and food processing |
|
|
Term
| How do viruses produce disease? |
|
Definition
| Like bacteria, viruses produce disease by disrupting the body's normal equilibrium. In many viral infections, viruses attack and destroy certain cells in the body, causing the symptoms of the disease. Poliovirus infects and kills cells of the nervous system, producing paralysis. Other viruses cause infected cells to change their patterns of growth and development. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Viroids are single-stranded RNA molecules that have no surrounding capsids. It is believed that viroids enter an infected cell and direct the synthesis of new viroids. The viroids then disrupt the metabolism of the plant cell and stunt the growth of the entire plant. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| In 1972, American Stanley Prusiner became interested in scrapie, an infectious disease in sheep for which the exact cause was unknown. Although he first suspected a virus, experiments suggested the disease might actually be caused by tiny particles found in the brains of infected sheep. Unlike viruses, these particles contained no DNA or RNA, only protein. Prusiner called these particles prions, short for “protein infectious particles.” Although prions were first discovered in sheep, many animals, including humans, can become infected with prions. |
|
|
Term
| Are protists unicellular or multicellular? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do zooflagellates, sarcodines, ciliates, and sporozoans move? |
|
Definition
| zooflagellates swim with flagella, sarcodines move by extensions of their cytoplasm, ciliates move by means of cilia, and sporozoans do not move on their own at all |
|
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Term
| Animal-like protists that swim using flagella are classified in which phylum? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| temporary cytoplasmic projections that help sarcodines move and feed |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Sarcodines are animal-like protists that use pseudopods for feeding and movement. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Amoebas are flexible, active cells with thick pseudopods that extend out of the central mass of the cell. The cytoplasm of the cell streams into the pseudopod, and the rest of the cell follows. This type of locomotion is known as amoeboid movement. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a small cavity in the cytoplasm that temporarily stores food. (in an amoeba) |
|
|
Term
| Which phylum uses cilia for feeding and movement? |
|
Definition
| Ciliophora, known as ciliates |
|
|
Term
| Where are ciliates found? |
|
Definition
| Ciliates are found in both fresh and salt water. In fact, a lake or stream near your home might contain many different ciliates. Most ciliates are free living, which means that they do not exist as parasites or symbionts. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| very small, bottle-shaped structures used for defense used by paramecium, members of Ciliophora |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Like most ciliates, a paramecium possesses two types of nuclei: a macronucleus and one or more smaller micronuclei. Why does a ciliate need two types of nuclei? The macronucleus is a “working library” of genetic information—a site for keeping multiple copies of most of the genes that the cell needs in its day-to-day existence |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The micronucleus, contains a “reserve copy” of all of the cell's genes (in a paramecium (Ciliates)) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| an indentation in one side of the organism into which ciliates use cilia to sweep food |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Waste materials are emptied into the environment when the food vacuole fuses with a region of the cell membrane called the anal pore. (ciliates) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cavities in the cytoplasm that are specialized to collect water (paramecium). |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Under most conditions, ciliates reproduce asexually by mitosis and cytokinesis. When placed under stress, paramecia may engage in a process known as conjugation that allows them to exchange genetic material with other individuals. The process of conjugation is shown in the figure below. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Under most conditions, ciliates reproduce asexually by mitosis and cytokinesis. When placed under stress, paramecia may engage in a process known as conjugation that allows them to exchange genetic material with other individuals. The process of conjugation is shown in the figure below. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Members of the phylum Sporozoa do not move on their own and are parasitic. Sporozoans are parasites of a wide variety of organisms, including worms, fish, birds, and humans. Many sporozoans have complex life cycles that involve more than one host. Sporozoans reproduce by sporozoites. Under the right conditions, a sporozoite can attach itself to a host cell, penetrate it, and then live within it as a parasite. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Many algae also have compounds called accessory pigments that absorb light at different wavelengths than chlorophyll. Accessory pigments pass the energy they absorb to the algae's photosynthetic machinery. Chlorophyll and accessory pigments allow algae to harvest and use the energy from sunlight. Because accessory pigments reflect different wavelengths of light than chlorophyll, they give algae a wide range of colors. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plantlike protists that have two flagella but no cell wall. Although euglenophytes have chloroplasts, in most other ways they are like zooflagellates. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| The phylum takes its name from the genus Euglena. Euglenas are found in ponds and lakes throughout the world. A typical euglena, such as the one shown below, is about 50 micrometers in length. Euglenas are excellent swimmers. Two flagella emerge from a gullet at one end of the cell, and the longer of these two flagella spins in a pattern that pulls the organism rapidly through the water. Near the gullet end of the cell is a cluster of reddish pigment known as the eyespot, which helps the organism find sunlight to power photosynthesis. If sunlight is not available, euglenas can also live as heterotrophs, absorbing the nutrients available in decayed organic material. Euglenas store carbohydrates in small storage bodies. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Euglenas do not have cell walls, but they do have an intricate cell membrane called a pellicle. The pellicle is folded into ribbonlike ridges, each ridge supported by microtubules. The pellicle is tough and flexible, letting euglenas crawl through mud when there is not enough water for them to swim. Euglenas reproduce asexually by binary fission. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| (fyt-oh-PLANK-tun) constitute the population of small, photosynthetic organisms found near the surface of the ocean. About half of the photosynthesis that occurs on Earth is carried out by phytoplankton, |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Red algae are able to live at great depths due to their efficiency in harvesting light energy. Red algae contain chlorophyll a and reddish accessory pigments called phycobilins. |
|
|
Term
| What phylum do brown algae belong to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What phylum do red algae belong to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What do Brown algae contain? |
|
Definition
| Brown algae contain chlorophyll a and c, as well as a brown accessory pigment, fucoxanthin. |
|
|
Term
| What characteristics do green algae share with plants? |
|
Definition
| Green algae share many characteristics with plants, including their photosynthetic pigments and cell wall composition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The freshwater alga Spirogyra forms long threadlike colonies called filaments, in which the cells are stacked almost like aluminum cans placed end to end |
|
|
Term
| What are characteristics of Funguslike Protists? |
|
Definition
| Like fungi, the funguslike protists are heterotrophs that absorb nutrients from dead or decaying organic matter. But unlike most true fungi, funguslike protists have centrioles. They also lack the chitin cell walls of true fungi |
|
|
Term
| What important role do slime molds play in the environment? |
|
Definition
| Slime molds are funguslike protists that play key roles in recycling organic material. |
|
|
Term
| What are the two different groups of slime mold? |
|
Definition
| The individual cells of cellular slime molds remain distinct—separated by cell membranes—during every phase of the mold's life cycle. Slime molds that pass through a stage in which their cells fuse to form large cells with many nuclei are called acellular slime molds. |
|
|
Term
| Water molds, or oomycetes belong to what phylum? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Water molds produce thin filaments known as what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe water mold: how does it survive? |
|
Definition
| Oomycetes thrive on dead or decaying organic matter in water and some are plant parasites on land. |
|
|
Term
| Which protist caused the potatoe famine in ireland? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fungi are eukaryotic heterotrophs that have cell walls. |
|
|
Term
| The cell walls of fungus are made of what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Multicellular fungi are composed of thin filaments called what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The bodies of multicellular fungi are composed of many hyphae tangled together into a thick mass called a mycelium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| What you recognize as a mushroom is actually the fruiting body of a fungus. A fruiting body is a reproductive structure growing from the mycelium in the soil beneath it. Clusters of mushrooms are often part of the same mycelium, which means that they are part of the same organism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is a resting spore that contains zygotes formed during the sexual phase of the mold's life cycle. |
|
|
Term
| Name the two types of hyphae |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Common molds belong to what phylum? |
|
Definition
| Zygomycota (rhizopus stolonifer) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| This phylum is named for ascus, a reproductive structure that contains spores |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| This gets its name from its reproductive structure shaped like a club. These go through an elaborate life cycle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fungi that cannot be placed in any other phyla because researchers can't observe a sexual phase in their lifestyles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| many fungi are saprobes, organisms that obtain food from decaying organic matter |
|
|
Term
| How do fungi help maintain equilibrium in ecosystems? |
|
Definition
| Fungi play an essential role in maintaining equilibrium in nearly every ecosystem, where they recycle nutrients by breaking down the bodies and wastes of other organisms. |
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