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| 5 "everyday errors in reasoning" |
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Definition
- inaccurate observation
- overgeralization
- selective observation
- illogical reasoning
- ideology & politics
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four purposes of research |
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Definition
- exlporation
- description
- explanation
- application
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| mistakingly observing or measuring a phenomenon |
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| wrongly concluding that what is true for a few is true for all |
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| To minimize "overgeneralization"? |
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Definition
study large, representative samples.
replicate the study to see if findings are repeatable. |
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| a rough proxy of the population |
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combine the indicators to create a "risk score"
EX=gender: series of questions were asked to determine what gender that person may be |
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| EX= sex: are you male or female? |
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measurement
external
internal |
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| primary goal of validity? |
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-abstract world
general explanation for how things work or how they came to be |
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active member of the population
Ex.-snowball |
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| form bond with 1 individual, ask them to give you references, look them up, repeat process |
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| stanford prison experiment |
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mean guards & passive inmates
-ethical issue
inmates not informed of the procedure
guards could make & modify rules |
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-typically founded on empirical research
-knowledge based on their own experience or observations
-genrally more accurate than agreement reality but can still have errors |
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| concerned with the accuracy of the measurement in the study |
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| internal validity (causal validity) |
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Definition
*3 criteria (?)
only an issue when examining causal chains (X->Y)
-explanatory & applied research
-concerned w/ how accurately we've identified the cause of Y |
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ratio (interval)
ordinal
nominal |
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Definition
-1964
world medical association's guidelines for medical research
-similar ideas as in Nuremberg Code
-begins to have an impact on US |
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| a measure of a concept that has at least two values or attributes |
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-abstract world to concrete world
-moving from general->specific |
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(generalization)
concerned with how accurately the findings from our sample describe the large population we are interested in |
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| mistakenly observing or measuring a phenomenon |
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| to minimize problems with "inaccurate observations"? |
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| use deliberate/systematic observations & valid (accurate) measurement tools |
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| strength of field research |
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| get a rich, full understanding of the behavior |
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1. correlation: X & Y move together
2. proper temporal (time) order: X occurred before Y
3. rule out rival explanation (spuriousness-the most difficult to rule out); X & Y are correlated solely b/c of Z |
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| applied (evaluation) research |
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Definition
examines the impact of criminal justice policies or programs
EX- does random police patrol deter crime? |
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| cause us to believe things are true b/c others believe so |
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federal guidelines for human subjects protection
Dept. health & human services |
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-started in 1974
-Congress appoints a committee to develop general guidelines for research (medical & social)
-completed in 1979 |
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| 3 ethical principles in Belmont Report |
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Definition
1. respect for persons
2. beneficence
3. justice |
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| not causal & attributed to by some other factor we'll call "Z" |
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concrete world-> abstract
moving from specific-> general |
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(analyzed the same way as interval so combined)
-quantitive
-most precise of highest level of measurement
-attributes reflects an actual, precise quantity
-numerically meaningful data=measure the amount of age |
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| complete observer "method" |
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Definition
identify yourself
observe/interview
-do not participate in the behavior
-may not have a complete appreciation or understanding of the behavior
Problem->reactive effect |
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| "operational definition"(measure)=concrete or specific way we measure a concept |
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| a measure with no variance (all scores the same) |
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summarize a phenomena about which little is unknown
-collect "baseline data"
EX- How widespread is black tar heroine use in Charlotte? |
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represents how much of a construct
EX- age, # of prior arrests |
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explains what social phenomenon
EX- what makes people do illegal drugs?
- does marijuana use lead to more serious drug use? |
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-a suspect of the population
-collect data from this group |
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| the general public's awareness & outcry of questionable research |
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Definition
1960-1970
account of "questionable" studies surfaced in the news
EX- tuskagee syphilis study
~US gov't sponsored
~"natural progression" of sypphalis on 400 poor, undereducated, african american males in Alabama
-diagnosis/treatment withheld |
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Definition
hypothesis->data->generalization
deduced from theory
predicts a relationship between Z+variables |
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| the entire set of elements (ppl, places, things) that you ultimately want to describe |
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-summarize (describe) the scope of familiar phenomenon
EX- what is CLT's crime rate for murder? robbery?
~document how much |
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use data to describe our population
required "p-values" |
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Definition
mid-1940s war trials from WWII German doctor
created for these trials -set of ethical guidelines of how to conduct medical research
-ethical guidelines:
~participation should be voluntary
~should minimize/avoid harm to participants
Impact: virtually none b/c they believed they didn't read it |
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| weakness in field research |
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Definition
| small samples, sizes, so may not describe large population |
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| Milgram's obedience studies |
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Definition
-1960s
Electrical Concerns
deception
~refused to let participants stop
~psychological stress |
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Definition
EX- NSDUH (National Survey on Drug Use & Health)
MTF (Monitoring the Future)
ask people to self-report their own criminal activity
~under/over scores on report=dark figure |
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Definition
written at level participants can understand
~8th grade max
~40% of US reads at 6th grade level
NOT needed:
1. when observing behavior that's not private (ex-park, driving, etc)
2. consent would change behavior and not be feasible to study |
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Term
| nomothetic causality (the rule) |
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Definition
Explaining the cause of Y n some group of cases
~what factors lead people to become______.
May not fit each individual case
~here causality is probabilistic
Nomothetic causality is probabilistic
~X does not always cause Y but it increases the likelihood that Y will occur |
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Term
UCR (Uniform Crime Report)
v.
NCVS (National Crime Victimization Survey) |
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Definition
similar, but not identical, set of offenses
EX- simple assault, rape, children, homicide
~for NCVS can't say you were killed when already dead
Hierarchy Rule (?)
Property Crime Rates:
~NCVS has a different denominator which makes # higher |
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| complete participant method |
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Definition
-do not identify yourself
-participate in the group's activities as a "member"
-measurement issues: asking a lot of questions may blow your cover |
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| institutional review board (IRB) |
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Definition
institutes governed by CFR are required to have an IRB to oversee "human subjects research" (min 5ppl w/ diverse background)
When reviewing proposal
-determines if the risks of the study are acceptable
-determines if there are adequate safeguards in place for participants |
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Definition
getting in
becoming invisible
danger
watching/listening
data analysis
getting out |
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| gatekeeper, works with population |
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Definition
NCVS (national crime victimization survey)
-may accidentally overreport |
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Definition
exploration
description
explanatory
application |
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Definition
| to explore social phenomenon |
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Definition
| to describe social phenomenon |
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| to explain social phenomenon |
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| to evaluate policies/programs |
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represents descriptive features
EX- race, type of crime, narrative accounts/stories
data can be coded w/ #
EX- 1=female & 2=male |
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Definition
-studying a phenomena of 2 or more points in time
-better at studying causal chain |
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| use of data to describe our sample |
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| a measure of how much variability (movement) is in the set of scores of an indicator |
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Definition
-data has identifiers on it
-data is secured (locked up) so that only the researchers can see it |
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Definition
-top down research
-theory guide approach
-used in exploratory or applied research
theory->hypothesis->data->generalization (continuing circle) |
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-studying a phenomenon at one point in time plus one time survey given
-provides a snap shot at the moment
-not great when examining causal chains |
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-bottom up approach
-data driven
-used in exploratory research
data->generalization->theory |
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Definition
-letting personal or political beliefs make you less objective about the facts
-ignoring or discounting finds you dont like or agree with |
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| minimize the problem of "ideology & politics"? |
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Definition
-put personal biases aside in order to remain objective
-can be difficult to do |
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Definition
summarizes phenomena
used for descriptive research (purpose) |
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| 3 main options to measure crime |
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Definition
-self report survey
-official records
-victimization survey |
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| idiographic causality (not the rule) |
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Definition
explaining the cause of Y in a specific case
EX-what gave rise to the terrorist attacks on 9/11?
-explanation does not necessarily apply to other areas |
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| maybe #s but this doesnt necessarily mean quantitative |
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people do not behave naturally if they know they are being watched
-important to build rapport/trust
~helps out to become "invisible" |
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| participant as observer "method" |
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Definition
identify yourself, but also participate in the behavior (to some degree)
-gives you firsthand experience/insight
-reactive effect still possible |
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Definition
2 methods: direct (watching) & interviewing (listening)
good for topics that cannot be easily studied through surveys |
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is a group of people w/ shared experiences
special panel study
EX-inmate cohort: all offenders incarcerated in 1997 |
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Definition
| measures a concept over time within the same |
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Definition
Ex- race (white, black, etc); sex (m/f); yes/no
-qualitative variable: measures descriptors (very basic)
the simplest or lowest level of measurement
non-hierachal categories
~no greater than/lesser than |
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Term
| what can you do with nominal data? |
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Definition
| count (or determine the %) in each group |
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| measures a concept over time but not same group of people |
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| variation of longitudinal studies |
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Definition
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EX- level of agreement (SD, D, A, SA)
level of frequency (never, rarely, often, always)
-qualitative variable
-attributes represent hierarchal categories
~do reflect greater than/less than
~but do not convey precise quantities
-because the data does not measure a precise amount, you cannot compute a precise |
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| what can you do with ordinal data? |
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Definition
-count (or determine %) in each group
-rank the order |
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Definition
| focusing on only those cases that support our personal beliefs/expectations |
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| to minimize problem with "select observation"? |
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Definition
-predetermine the #/type of people you need to study in order to answer questions & answer data
-dont stop at the moment you begin to see a pattern; the pattern may change |
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jumping to conclusions based on faulty logic
EX-most criminals drink soda therefore soda causes crime |
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| to minimize the problem of "illogical reasoning"? |
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Definition
| adhere to the rules of logic |
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Definition
-UCR
-NIBRS (national incident based reporting system)
~more crime; more details; no hierarchy rule
~not widely implemented yet |
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Definition
making individual-level conclusions from group-level data
-to operationally define a construct
~no right/wrong way
~but some are better (more accurate) than others |
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Definition
data has no identifiers on it
-maximizes the participants safety
-if others see the data, they will not be able to identify the participants |
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