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| An artificial waterway extending about 579 km (360 mi) across central New York from Albany to Buffalo. Constructed from 1817 to 1825 and enlarged numerous times after 1835, it is now part of the New York State Barge Canal.Tolls were abolished in 1882 because of increasing competition from railroads Sadly, the Thruway Authority now manages the state’s canals, with tolls reintroduced. |
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| A security issued by or on behalf of a local authority.Bond issued by a state, city, or local government. Municipalities issue bonds to raise capital for their day-to-day activities and for specific projects that they might be undertaking (usually pertaining to development of local infrastructure such as roads, sewerage, hospitals etc) |
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| a document, issued by a sovereign or state, outlining the conditions under which a corporation, colony, city, or other corporate body is organized, and defining its rights and privileges. |
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| American jurist, b. Montgomery co., N.Y., M.D. State Univ. of Iowa, 1850. He abandoned medical practice early in his career and was admitted to the Iowa bar in 1852. Dillon was an Iowa state judge (1858-68) and a U.S. circuit judge (1869-79). During his judicial career he wrote Municipal Corporations (1872), one of the earliest systematic studies on this subject, and Removal of Cases from State Courts to Federal Courts (1876). He was (1879-82) a professor in the Columbia Law School, and president of the American Bar Association from 1891 to 1892 |
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Dillon’s Rule is the cornerstone of American municipal law. Under Dillon's Rule, a municipal government has authority to act only when :
(1) the power is granted in the express words of the statute, private act, or charter creating the municipal corporation;
(2) the power is necessarily or fairly implied in, or incident to the powers expressly granted; or
(3) the power is one that is neither expressly granted nor fairly implied from the express grants of power, but is otherwise implied as essential to the declared objects and purposes of the corporation, The Dillon rule is used in interpreting state law when there is a question of whether or not a local government has a certain power. Judge Forest Dillon, the chief justice of the Iowa Supreme Court expounded this famous rule, which was quickly adopted by state supreme courts around the nation. |
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| Baker sought an injunction prohibiting further elections, and sought the remedy of reapportionment or at-large elections. The district court denied relief on the grounds that the issue of redistricting posed a political question and would therefore not be heard by the court.The court held that this case was justiciable and did not present a political question. The case did not present an issue to be decided by another branch of the government. The court noted that judicial standards under the Equal Protection Clause were well developed and familiar, and it had been open to courts since the enactment of the Fourteenth Amendment to determine if an act is arbitrary and capricious and reflects no policy. When a question is enmeshed with any of the other two branches of the government, it presents a political question and the Court will not answer it without further clarification from the other branches. |
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| an electoral district from which two or more members are sent to the legislature |
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| characterized by an inequitable or unsuitable apportioning of representatives to a legislative body |
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| a device that carries electric current from an overhead wire to an electrically driven vehicle |
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| a usually automotive public vehicle designed to carry a large number of passengers |
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| a license authorizing the holder to sell alcoholic beverages |
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| a group that controls the activities of a political party; "he was endorsed by the Democratic machine" |
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| The process whereby a minority group gradually adopts the customs and attitudes of the prevailing culture.the process of receiving new facts or of responding to new situations in conformity with what is already available to consciousness |
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| suffrage for all adults who are not disqualified by the laws of the country |
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| is the individual who acts as the direct link between a political party organization (which sometimes acts as a party machine) and the voters in an election precinct. A precinct captain helps with voter registration, distribution of literature and other promotional efforts, and helps voters get absentee ballots or get to the voting booths on election day. |
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| Political leaders often have at their disposal a great deal of patronage, in the sense that they make decisions on the appointment of officials inside and outside government, the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows to another. |
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| A civil servant or public servant is a civilian public sector employee working for a government department or agency.In the United States, the civil service was established in 1872. The Federal Civil Service is defined as "all appointive positions in the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of the Government of the United States, except positions in the uniformed services. |
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| It was the Democratic Party political machine that played a major role in controlling New York City politics and helping immigrants, most notably the Irish, rise up in American politics from the 1790s to the 1960s. It controlled Democratic Party nominations and patronage in Manhattan, Tammany Hall was permanently weakened by the election of Fiorello La Guardia on a "fusion" ticket of Republicans, reform-minded Democrats, and independents in 1934, and, despite a brief resurgence in the 1950s, it ceased to exist in the 1960s. |
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| George Washington Plunkitt |
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| Plunkitt became wealthy by practicing what he called "honest graft" in politics. He was a cynically honest practitioner of what today is generally known as "machine politics," patronage-based and frank in its exercise of power for personal gain. In one of his speeches, quoted in Plunkitt of Tammany Hall, he describes the difference between dishonest and honest graft: for dishonest graft one worked solely for one's own interests, while for honest graft one pursued the interests of one's party, one's state, and one's personal interests all together.(George Washington Plunkitt (1842–1924) was a long-time State Senator from the U.S. state of New York, representing the Fifteenth Senate District, who was especially powerful in New York City. He was part of what is known as New York's Tammany Hall machine. He was born in 1842, and died in 1924.) |
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| Tammany Hall was a political force in New York City from its 1789 inception as a benevolent association to mayoral campaigns in the 1950s. Frequently its leadership was identical to the Executive Committee of the local Democratic party, and it was a major or controlling faction in the party in 1821-1872 and 1905-1932. Key Tammany bosses through the years included William M. Tweed, Richard F. Croker, and Charles F. Murray. |
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| American politician. The Democratic boss of New York City in the 1860s, he defrauded the city of millions of dollars before being exposed and convicted (1873). |
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| Political bosses and their “machine organizations” operating in large American cities at the turn of the century enjoyed strong support among the poor and immigrants, who returned the favor by voting for the bosses’ preferred candidates. Many immigrants saw bosses and political machines as a means to greater enfranchisement. For immigrants and the poor in many large U.S. cities, the political boss represented a source of patronage jobs. To urban reformers of the early 20th century, the bosses and their organizations personified political corruption. For example, a notable political machine at the turn of the century was the Pendergast machine of Kansas City, Missouri. It was built and led by two brothers, who controlled Kansas City politics for nearly 40 years. It was also famous because an early beneficiaty of the Pendergast machine was Harry S. Truman, who eventually became the nation’s 33rd President. |
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| Abraham Reuf of San Francisco |
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| The Abraham Ruef trials revealed the rise and pervasiveness of graft and the power of political bosses in modern industrial America, and the growth of the Progressive movement that challenged such forces.(In the end, none of the havoc saved Ruef, whom a jury finally convicted in 1908. He was sentenced to 14 years imprisonment in San Quentin, and finally, after exhausting his appeals, began serving his sentence. Of all of the bosses and corrupt politicians who had controlled the city since 1901, he was the only man to go to prison for his deeds. Mayor Schmitz was also convicted of bribery and extortion, but an appellate court overturned the verdict.) |
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| a kind of social movement that aims to make gradual change, or change in certain aspects of society, rather than rapid or fundamental changes. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical social movements such as revolutionary movements. |
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| The Social Gospel movement is a Protestant Christian intellectual movement that was most prominent in the late 19th century and early 20th century. The movement applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially social justice, inequality, liquor, crime, racial tensions, slums, bad hygiene, child labor, weak labor unions, poor schools, and the danger of war. Theologically, the Social Gospel leaders were overwhelmingly post-millennialist. That is because they believed the Second Coming could not happen until humankind rid itself of social evils by human effort.Social Gospel leaders were predominantly associated with the liberal wing of the Progressive Movement and most were theologically liberal, although they were typically conservative when it came to their views on social issues. |
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| Realigning election (often called a critical election or political realignment) are terms from political science and political history describing a dramatic change in the political system.(Realignment is a major change in the politics; a change in the way most of the people believe/vote also it could be when a new person comes to power.) |
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| The Great Awakening was a religious revival in American religious history. Historians and theologians identify three or four waves of Great Awakening occurring from the early 18th century to the late 20th century, each characterized by widespread revivals led by evangelical Protestant ministers, a sharp increase of interest in religion, a profound sense of conviction and redemption on the part of those affected, a jump in evangelical church membership, and the formation of new religious movements and denominations.(there were 4 or more of these periods) |
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| Pingree relished a good fight and swung a broad ax. As mayor, he exposed shady practices in departments of city government, reportedly walking into a Board of Education meeting and having four members arrested on accusations of taking bribes from desk and book manufacturers. No monopoly was safe. He forced the city’s utilities to lower their rates and accused them of having a stranglehold on Detroiters through bribery and threats. He fought telephone companies by encouraging competition. He built a municipal electric plant that saved Detroiters the equivalent of more than $2 million a year. He lowered taxes for the common man while taking on the powerful railroad lobby, saying they should pay taxes like every other business. The city’s Public Lighting Commission was formed under Pingree’s watch, putting streetlights under public control. |
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Jane Addams was a world renowned social worker. Most connected with her work in Chicago with Hull House, she worked for peace and freedom, justice and equality tirelessly in many arenas her entire, very long life.
Jane Addams won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. She was the first American woman to win this prestigious award. She is considered by many to be the "mother " of modern social work. |
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| U.S. journalist and reformer. He worked for New York City newspapers, he began his famous muckraking articleslater published as The Shame of the Cities (1904)exposing corruption in politics and big business. He lectured widely and aroused public interest in seeking solutions and taking action. |
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| Lincoln Steffens muckraking masterpiece The Shame of the Cities exposes political corruption across America's greatest cities at the turn of the twentieth century. His collected articles present a portrait of the political and social landscape of each city and the variable effects of corruption on city life. |
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| Chicago has been divided into municipal legislative districts called wards since its first municipal charter in 1837, which created six wards. Except for the single alderman allotted to wards Three and Five until 1839, each ward elected two members of the Common Council. The number of wards increased repeatedly in the nineteenth century to accommodate growth in population and territory, eventually stabilizing at 35 wards after the major annexations of 1889. In 1923 the current system was adopted, with one alderman representing each of 50 wards. State law requires that ward boundaries be redrawn after each federal census to ensure roughly equal representation by population size. In the 1970s and 1980s there were five court-ordered partial redistricting to redress the under representation of racial and ethnic minorities. |
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| An at-large election system is one in which all voters can vote for all candidates running for open seats in the jurisdiction. In an at-large election system candidates run in an entire jurisdiction rather than from districts or wards within the area. For example, a city with three open city council positions where all candidates for the three seats run against each other and the top three receiving the most votes citywide are elected is an at-large election system. In at-large election systems, 50% of the voters control 100% of the seats. At-large election systems can have discriminatory effects on minorities where minority and majority voters consistently prefer different candidates and the majority will regularly defeat the choices of minority voters because of their numerical superiority. |
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In a weak-mayor-council system, the council is both a legislative and an executive body. Council members appoint administrative officials; they make policy; they serve as ex officio members of boards; and they prepare the budget. With this, Mayor powers are “weak” because they lack effective executive power and restriction on the ability to appoint and remove officials, and lack veto powers.
The strong-mayor form of mayor–council government usually consists of an executive branch, a mayor elected by voters, and a unicameral council as the legislative branch.
In the strong-mayor form the elected mayor is given almost total administrative authority and a clear, wide range of political independence, with the power to appoint and dismiss department heads without council approval and little, or no public input. In this system, the strong-mayor prepares and administers the city budget, although that budget often must be approved by the council. Abuses in this form led to the development of the council–manager form of local government and its adoption widely throughout the United States. |
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| mmigration assistance program operated by several Jewish organizations between 1907 and 1914. The program worked to divert Jewish immigrants, fleeing Russia and eastern Europe, away from East Coast cities, particularly New York, which was already crowded with these poverty-stricken immigrants.(Galveston was judged as best; its small size would not encourage large numbers of Jews to settle there permanently and it provided convenience and closer access to the growing economic opportunities of the American West; it was already a destination of the German shipping company Norddeutscher Lloyd, which operated out of Bremen, the major point of European embarkation.) |
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| Galveston's apparent success with the new type of government inspired Houston to adopt the plan in 1905 and Dallas, Fort Worth, El Paso, Denison, and Greenville to follow in 1907. By then sometimes referred to as the Texas Idea, the commission plan began to be noticed nationally and to be regarded as a progressive reform. Des Moines, Iowa, was the first city outside Texas to adopt the commission plan. The Des Moines version included nonpartisan balloting, merit selection of employees, and the direct-democracy devices of initiative, referendum, and recall. Although Dallas, Fort Worth, and some other Texas cities also used direct democracy, Des Moines was able to take credit for making commission government a package of reforms often billed as the Des Moines Plan. |
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| Commission (manager form of gov) |
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| The commission form of city government, also known as the Galveston Plan, was devised in Galveston in 1901 and became one of the three basic forms of municipal government in the United States. (The others are mayor-council and council-manager.) Under the commission plan voters elect a small governing commission, typically five or seven members, on an at-large basis. As a group the commissioners constitute the legislative body of the city responsible for taxation, appropriations, ordinances, and other general functions. Individually, each commissioner is in charge of a specific aspect of municipal affairs, e.g., public works, finance, or public safety. One of the commissioners is designated chairman or mayor, but his function is principally one of presiding at meetings and serving in ceremonial capacities. Thus the commission plan blends legislative and executive functions in the same body. |
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| Home rule is the power of a constituent part (administrative division) of a state to exercise such of the state's powers of governance within its own administrative area that have been devolved to it by the central government. |
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| Frederick Winslow Taylor devised a system he called scientific management, a form of industrial engineering that established the organization of work as in Ford's assembly line. This discipline, along with the industrial psychology established by others at the Hawthorne Works of Western Electic in the 1920s, moved management theory from early time-and-motion studies to the latest total quality control ideas. |
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| Principles of Scientific Management |
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| a monograph published by Frederick Winslow Taylor in 1911. This influential monograph, which laid out the principles of scientific management, is a seminal text of modern organization and decision theory and has motivated administrators and students of managerial technique. |
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| A muckraker is, primarily, a reporter or writer who investigates and publishes truthful reports involving a host of social issues, broadly including crime and corruption and often involving elected officials, political leaders and influential members of business and industry. The term is closely associated with a number of important writers who emerged in the 1890s through the 1930s, a period roughly concurrent with the Progressive Era in the United States. |
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| set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable level of safety for constructed objects such as buildings and nonbuilding structures. The main purpose of building codes are to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of buildings and structures. The building code becomes law of a particular jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate authority. |
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| The Great Migration was the movement of 1.3 million African-Americans out of the South to the North, Midwest and West between 1910 to 1930. African Americans moved to free themselves from racism, and for better opportunities in both education for children and employment and land. One destination was California, where it suppplied an abundance of jobs in industry. Between 1965-70, 14 main states contributed to the migration. Some of these included Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi. |
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The Red Summer of 1919 refers to a series of race riots took place between May and October of that year. Although riots occurred in more than thirty cities throughout the United States, the bloodiest events were in Chicago, Washington D.C. and Elaine, Ark.(
Labor Shortages: Industrial cities in the North and Midwest profited greatly from World War I. Yet, the factories also encountered serious labor shortages because white men were enlisting in World War I and the United States government halted immigration from Europe.
The Great Migration: To fulfill these job shortages, at least 500,000 African-Americans moved from the South to Northern and Midwestern cities. African-Americans were also leaving the South to escape Jim Crow laws, segregated schools, and lack of job opportunities.
Racial Strife: Working class white workers in Northern and Midwestern cities resented the presence of African-Americans, who were now competition for employment.) |
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| Boll weevils was an American political term used in the mid- and late-20th century to describe conservative Southern Democrats. |
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| the separation of different kinds of humans (like black and white people) into racial groups in daily life. |
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| an extrajudicial execution carried out by a mob, often by hanging, but also by burning at the stake and shooting, in order to punish an alleged transgressor, or to intimidate, control, or otherwise manipulate a population of people, however large or small. |
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| National Origins Immigration Act |
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| A law that severely restricted immigration by establishing a system of national quotas that blatantly discriminated against immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and virtually excluded Asians. The policy stayed in effect until the 1960s. |
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| A restrictive covenant is a type of real covenant, a legal obligation imposed in a deed by the seller upon the buyer of real estate to do or not to do something. Such restrictions frequently "run with the land" and are enforceable on subsequent buyers of the property. In jurisdictions that use the Torrens system of land registration, restrictive covenants are generally registered against title. |
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refers to the practice in which real estate brokers guide prospective home buyers towards or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race. Racial steering is often divided into two broad classes of conduct;
Advising customers to purchase homes in particular neighborhoods on the basis of race Failing, on the basis of race, to show, or to inform buyers of homes that meet their specifications |
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| Block Busting (real-estate) |
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| The illegal and discriminatory practice of helping ethnic or minority individuals into predominantly non-ethnic or minority-dominated areas, and then using scare tactics to force current neighborhood residents to sell their homes at depressed prices. For example, a real estate broker would tell the current residents of an area that once the new, minority tenants move in that housing prices will tumble and crime will increase, even if this is not necessarily true. The broker will then buy up the cheaper homes at reduced prices. |
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Racial quotas in employment and education are numerical requirements for hiring, promoting, admitting and/or graduating members of a particular racial group. Racial quotas are often established as means of diminishing racial discrimination against those racial groups. Racial quotas are closely linked to notions of group rights, and special rights.
These quotas may be determined by governmental authority and backed by governmental sanctions. When the total number of jobs or enrollment slots is fixed, this proportion may get translated to a specific number. In education, this kind of quota is also known as Numerus clausus. |
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| James Michael Curley, (born Nov. 20, 1874, Boston, Mass., U.S.—died Nov. 12, 1958, Boston), American politician, one of the best known and most colourful big-city Democratic bosses, who dominated Boston politics throughout the first half of the 20th century.(Curley served in a succession of elective capacities—as a state legislator, alderman, city councilman, and U.S. representative—before winning the mayoralty in 1914, resigning his congressional seat, in fact, to assume the municipal office.) |
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| In 1924 Vito Marcantonio joined Fiorello La Guardia in supporting Robert La Follette, who was the presidential candidate of the Progressive Party. This resulted in La Guardia losing the Republican Party nomination. "The Democratic Party, as usual, sought to defeat him. La Guardia asked me to actively participate in that campaign, and together with a handful of our friends and neighbors in East Harlem, we conducted a successful campaign for him and for LaFollette in our congressional district." In 1932 he co-sponsored with George Norris, the Norris-La Guardia Act, which restricted the courts' power to ban strikes. |
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| The Model T was introduced on October 1, 1908. It had the steering wheel on the left, which every other company soon copied. The entire engine and transmission were enclosed; the four cylinders were cast in a solid block; the suspension used two semi-elliptic springs. The car was very simple to drive, and easy and cheap to repair. It was so cheap at $825 in 1908 ($21,340 today) (the price fell every year) that by the 1920s, a majority of American drivers had learned to drive on the Model T.(By the mid-1920s, sales of the Model T began to decline due to rising competition. Other auto makers offered payment plans through which consumers could buy their cars, which usually included more modern mechanical features and styling not available with the Model T. Despite urgings from Edsel, Henry steadfastly refused to incorporate new features into the Model T or to form a customer credit plan) |
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| commuter suburb, from which people travel to the city centre to work |
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| Llewellyn Park was one of the first planned suburbs in the United States, where natural beauty was both carefully cultivated and allowed to remain undisturbed. The landscaping is in the 19th century romantic style of New York's Central Park, and includes winding paths, ornamental trees, shrubs, and flowers |
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| an omnibus bill that provided college or vocational education for returning World War II veterans (commonly referred to as G.I.s) as well as one year of unemployment compensation. It also provided many different types of loans for returning veterans to buy homes and start businesses. Since the original act, the term has come to include other veteran benefit programs created to assist veterans of subsequent wars as well as peacetime service. |
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In 1965, the United States passed the landmark Hart-Celler Act, abolishing nation-of-origin restrictions. Effective June 30, 1968, immigration and naturalization exclusion on the basis of race, sex, or nationality was prohibited. Under the Hart-Celler Act, new immigration criteria was based on kinship ties, refugee status, and 'needed skills.' Between 1820 and 1960, 34.5 million Europeans immigrated to the U.S., while only one million Asians—mostly Chinese and Japanese—immigrated. An unintended, unanticipated, and highly evident effect of Hart-Celler was the burgeoning of Asian immigration.
Between 1870-1965, a total of 16,013 Indians immigrated to the United States. In the first decade following the passage of the 1965 Hart-Celler Act, 96,735 Indians immigrated. For the most part, these new Indian immigrants entered under the needed skills preference of the 1965 law |
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| Kerner Commission/Gov Kerner |
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| n 1967, the Kerner Commission, appointed by President Johnson to study the causes of the riots that swept American inner cities that year, recommended that the federal government establish "uniform national standards" of welfare aid "at least as high as the annual 'poverty level' of income" (which was then $3,335 for an urban family of four). The commission also advised that states be required to participate in the Unemployed Parents program of the AFDC and that welfare mothers of young children no longer be required to work. |
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| the transporting of public-school students by bus to schools outside their neighborhoods, especially as a means of achieving racial balance. |
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| National Assoc. of Real Estate Board |
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| A trade association that represents U.S. Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs) and publicly traded real estate companies. In essence, NAREIT works as a lobbyist for both of these groups when dealing with individuals who legislate the two respective industries. |
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| An organization mostly of minority real estate salespersons and brokers who are called realtists |
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| housing project: a housing development that is publicly funded and administered for low-income families.(Housing that is built, operated, and owned by a government and that is typically provided at nominal rent to the needy.) |
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| It started out near the end of the World War II as an optimistic future for the impoverished citizens of Chicago, where they could have decent living facilities for a minimal cost. But right after the war, thousands of workers were fired after the nearby factories closed, the city was running out of budget, and thus, the Cabrini-Green buildings fell into neglect. As a result, all the honest citizens left the buildings as soon as they saved enough to move out, leaving behind nothing but gangstaz, drug dealers, and people who earned less than one minimal wage. (The worst shithole in the entire city of Chicago, now thankfully being demolished for good.) |
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slum clearance
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The clearing of old decrepit buildings to allow the land to be put to a better and more productive use. |
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| "Negro" fell victim to the push for self-definition during the black-power movement of the late 1960s. It recalls the days when "urban renewal" was nicknamed "Negro removal," though the term lives on in the names of such organizations as the National Council of Negro Women and the United Negro College Fund. |
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| Justin Herman of San Francisco |
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| Justin Herman was city planner who used eminent domain to uproot working class black neighborhoods in order to create the present manifestation of the Embarcadero, and the not so pedestrian friendly Japantown/Geary Street super road area. Rich people called it "urban renewal", poor people called it racist. His actions were hotly contested political issues at the time (1950's). |
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| Housing and Home Finace Agency |
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| Governmental (state or local) organization established to provide housing assistance. In most cases, the agency can issue bonds that pay tax-free interest and therefore sell at below taxable yields. The low-cost money is then used to fund lowinterest mortgage loans for eligible borrowers. The amount of bond financing available to each state is limited by the U.S. Treasury. |
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| an agreement under which a person borrows money to buy property, esp a house, and the lender may take possession of the property if the borrower fails to repay the money,(a conveyance of an interest in property as security for the repayment of money borrowed.) |
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| Reducing the book value of an asset because it is overvalued compared to the market value. A write-down typically occurs on a company's financial statement, when the carrying value of the asset can no longer be justified as fair value and the likelihood of receiving the cost (book value) is questionable at best. |
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| the rehabilitation of city areas by renovating or replacing dilapidated buildings with new housing, public buildings, parks, roadways, industrial areas, etc., often in accordance with comprehensive plans. |
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| National Housing Act of 1934 |
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| An act created to make home mortgages easier to acquire and also to reduce the foreclosure of family home mortgages by banks and mortgage lending companies. It brought about the creation of federal saving loan insurance corporation and the federal housing administration (FHA), which creates greater opportunities for low-income earners to become home-owners by assisting with mortgages with down payments that are as much as 70% lesser than the average national requirement. |
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| Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 |
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| The GI Bill created a comprehensive package of benefits, including financial assistance for higher education, for veterans of U.S. military service. The benefits of the GI Bill are intended to help veterans readjust to civilian life following service to their country and to encourage bright, motivated men and women to volunteer for military duty. This legislation came in two parts: the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 and the Montgomery GI Bill. |
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| The term 'Housing Act of 1949 ' as it applies to the area of agriculture can be defined as ' Title V of P.L. 81-171 (October 25, 1949) authorized USDA to make loans to farmers to construct, improve, repair, or replace dwellings and other farm buildings to provide decent, safe, and sanitary living conditions for themselves, their tenants, lessees, sharecroppers, and laborers. The USDA was authorized to make grants or combinations of loans and grants to farmers who could not qualify to repay the full amount of a loan, but who needed the funds to make the dwellings sanitary or to remove health hazards to the occupants or the community. Over time, the Act has been amended to authorize housing loans and grants to rural residents in general and these are administered by the Rural Housing Service (RHS). The rural housing programs are generally referred to by the section number under which they are authorized in the Housing Act of 1949, as amended'. |
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| A U.S. cabinet department that provides patient care, veterans' benefits, and other services to veterans of the U.S. armed forces and their families. Commonly referred to as "the VA," the organization also provides this group with disability compensation for those who are injured or contracted a disease while serving, education and training, medical, surgical, and rehabilitative care, readjustment counseling, bereavement counseling, surviving spouse benefits, care and benefits to homeless veterans, medical research, life insurance, vocational rehabilitation, headstones/burial markers, and home loan assistance. |
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| Title VIII, Civil Rights Act of 1968 |
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Definition
Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 (Fair Housing Act) prohibits discrimination in the sale, rental and financing of dwellings based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin. Title VIII was amended in 1988 (effective March 12, 1989) by the Fair Housing Amendments Act, which:
expanded the coverage of the Fair Housing Act to prohibit discrimination based on disability or on familial status (presence of child under age of 18, and pregnant women);
established new administrative enforcement mechanisms with HUD attorneys bringing actions before administrative law judges on behalf of victims of housing discrimination; and
revised and expanded Justice Department jurisdiction to bring suit on behalf of victims in Federal district courts. |
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| Income Eligibility Restrictions |
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Definition
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Definition
| housing project: a housing development that is publicly funded and administered for low-income families.(Housing that is built, operated, and owned by a government and that is typically provided at nominal rent to the needy.) |
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| Central Business Districts (CBD) |
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Definition
| The downtown section of a city, generally consisting of retail, office, hotel, entertainment, and high density housing. |
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| A highway that is part of the federal network of major roads; despite their name, some interstates do not cross state lines. |
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Definition
The National Highway System consists of roadways important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility. The National Highway System (NHS) includes the following subsystems of roadways (note that a specific highway route may be on more than one subsystem):Interstate : (The Eisenhower Interstate System of highways retains its separate identity within the NHS.Strategic Highway Network(STRAHNET): This is a network of highways which are important to the United States' strategic defense policy and which provide defense access, continuity and emergency capabilities for defense purposes.
Major Strategic Highway Network Connectors: These are highways which provide access between major military installations and highways which are part of the Strategic Highway Network.
Intermodal Connectors: These highways provide access between major intermodal facilities and the other four subsystems making up the National Highway System. A listing of all official NHS Intermodal Connectors is available here) |
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| One of Eisenhower's enduring achievements was championing and signing the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956.[113] He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War. It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible war, hence the highways were designed to facilitate their evacuation and ease military maneuvers. |
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| A gasoline tax is a sales tax imposed on the sale of gasoline. In the United States, the funds are dedicated or hypothecated to be used for transportation or roads purposes, so that the gas tax is considered by many to be a user fee. The federal government has levied a tax on gasoline since 1932. For many years, the proceeds of the tax went into the general fund of the Treasury. Although at the time of enactment there was no earmarking of any kind, federal highway aid was continuously granted to the states. In 1956, the federal gasoline tax was increased and the proceeds paid into a trust fund set up to finance the federal government share the cost of the interstate highway system. (State gasoline tax laws may also apply, which vary by state. Local laws should be consulted for the specific requirements in your area. Gasoline tax may also be referred to as a gas tax, petrol tax, fuel tax or fuel duty.) |
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| Inter-modal Surface Transportation |
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Definition
The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, created a new dimension to the U.S. surface transportation. The Act aims to:
1. maintain and expand the U.S.'s transportation system;
2. foster a sound financial base for transportation;
3. keep the transportation industry strong and competitive;
4. promote surface transport safety;
5. protect the environment and thus to improve the quality of life; and
6. advance the U.S. technology and expertise. |
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Term
| Efficiency Act (ISTEA) of 1992 |
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Definition
| Under the Intermodal Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, United States President George H. W. Bush authorized the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) to oversee mass transportation for six years following its enactment. The Act allocated US$155 billion for the fiscal years 1992 through 1997 to meet these requirements. It addressed the changing needs of the nation, and in the process intended to create jobs, reduce traffic congestion, rebuild the transportation infrastructure, and enable states to address environmental issues related to transportation. The Act consisted of eight titles that oversaw national and state transportation. |
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Definition
| A Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO) is a federally required transportation planning body comprised of elected and appointed officials representing local, state and federal governments or agencies having interest or responsibility in transportation planning and programming. An MPO is responsible for the development of a Long Range Transportation Plan (LRTP), the Transportation Improvement Program (TIP), and a Unified Planning Work Program (UPWP) for its metropolitan planning area. The adoption of these documents is a prerequisite for the receipt of both federal transit and federal highway funding.(what does it do:The MPO discusses and votes on multi-modal transportation issues of region-wide significance, and decides which local transportation projects should be implemented. One of the ways in which this is accomplished is through adoption of a Long-Range Transportation Plan which is updated routinely. Also, based on the needs identified through the long range planning process, the MPO develops and adopts a priority list of projects for implementation each year. This annual process is called the UPWP.) |
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Definition
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| Transportation Equity Act (TEA-21) |
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Definition
| The Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century, TEA-21, is the name given to the Federal legislation (Public Law 105-178) The preceding external link opens a new browser window which authorizes Federal highway, highway safety, transit and other surface transportation programs. The bill was signed into law on June 9, 1998, and covers the period October 1, 1997 through September 30, 2003. TEA-21 is the successor legislation to the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA, Public Law 102-240) The preceding external link opens a new browser window, a landmark piece of transportation legislation that expired on September 30, 1997. TEA-21 builds on the initiatives established in ISTEA. It continues most of ISTEA's programs and policies and maintains ISTEA's emphasis on local involvement in transportation decision making. |
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Definition
| In American politics, the Southern strategy refers to the Republican Party strategy of gaining political support or winning elections in the Southern section of the country by appealing to racism against African Americans. |
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| A group that makes up a majority of voters but does not widely express its views through marches or demonstrations. For example, They thought they had a convincing case, but they hadn't counted on the silent majority. This idiom was first recorded in 1874 but gained currency in the 1960s, when President Richard Nixon claimed that his policies were supported by a majority of citizens who did not bother to make their views known. |
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| White Flight/Black Flight |
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Definition
White:
A perfectly legitimate attempt by innocent people, often oppressed white middle class individuals and families, to exercise their civil rights to choose which neighbors they want to live with and what lifestyle they wish to pass on to their children, by peacefully leaving neighborhoods that no longer meet their very reasonable standards of safety and decency. This phenomenon is often misrepresented as racist by those who resent the freedom to move that these hard-working people have earned, without dependence on government support.
Black:the out-migration of African Americans from predominantly black or mixed inner-city areas in the United States to suburbs and outlying edge cities of newer home construction. While more attention has been paid to this since the 1990s, the movement of blacks to the suburbs has been underway for some time, with nine million persons having migrated from 1960-2000. Their goals have been similar to those of the white middle class, whose out-migration was called white flight: newer housing, better schools for their children, and attractive environments. |
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Definition
| The Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of equal protection applies in this case to prohibit the enforcement of the restrictive covenant at issue due to the fact that the provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment apply only where there is state action, which is found in this case due to the action of the Supreme Court of Missouri in enforcing the agreement, the result of which is to deprive the Petitioners of their property. |
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| 1. Deindustrialized area of the Midwest including, but not limited to: Illinois, Indiana, southeast Missouri, Michigan, Ohio, and western Pennsylvania. This area is called so because it suffered from problems that arose when manufacturing centers closed in the 1960's, 1970's, and 1980's. This in turn led to an out migration of whites (white flight) who lost their jobs and an in migration of southern blacks who took over the deindustrialized areas, which led to a severe increase in crime. Many of those who left headed south for the Sun Belt. Major cities that suffered somewhat from the Rust Belt problems include Chicago, Indianapolis, Cincinnati, and Columbus. Cities hit especially hard include Detroit, Cleveland, St. Louis, and Pittsburgh. Ironically, all of these cities have revitalized their downtowns and become popular tourist destinations with major attractions. Only two major cities, Indianapolis and Columbus, have grown substantially despite being Rust Belt cities. In fact, one can say these cities have survived the "curse" of the Rust Belt. Only time will tell what happens next to these major cities. |
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| A region of the United States covering the geographic southern United States, or roughly the area south of the 37th or 38th parallels, north latitude. |
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Definition
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| a region of the United States generally considered to include the Northeastern United States, the Great Lakes Region, and much of the Upper Midwest. The region is known for its cold, frost-producing winters and heavy snowfall. |
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Definition
| The term to describe unplanned and rampant suburban and urban growth because of the way it eats up the landscape and "sprawls" out the extent of a metropolitan area. Typical things associated with sprawl are megastores, identical housing, large yards, and 8-lane roads. |
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Term
| New Regionalism/New Urbanism |
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Definition
| The current rebirth of the belief that government based on metropolitan units (such as Greater Manchester, or the UK West Midlands) can plan for regions better than can disjointed local government groupings. It is argued that the economic health of the city and of its catchment areas are indivisible, and that, without regional planning, individual authorities within a single region will compete with one another for limited resources and economic investment. |
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Definition
| The Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) program is a flexible program that provides communities with resources to address a wide range of unique community development needs. Beginning in 1974, the CDBG program is one of the longest continuously run programs at HUD. The CDBG program provides annual grants on a formula basis to 1209 general units of local government and States. |
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Term
| Planned Communities/Gated Communities |
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Definition
| A residential district that is planned for a certain class of residents |
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| An acronym originally meaning Young Urban Professionals. Usually referring to one who exhibits pretentious or snobbish behavior. |
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| a process by which middle-class people take up residence in a traditionally working-class area of a city, changing the character of the area |
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| To cause (a nation or area) to lose or be deprived of industrial capability or strength, ((Economics) the decline in importance of manufacturing industry in the economy of a nation or area) |
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Term
| TIFs-Tax increment finance districts |
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Definition
| A TIF (Tax Increment Financing) district is an area within a city that, after much careful study by the city and expert consultants, is found to be “blighted” and without hope of attracting private investment without some governmental intervention. These are important criteria that must be met prior to the creation of a TIF, and they ensure that the funds generated from a TIF are used in areas truly in need of redevelopment. A city is not free to slap the TIF label on any property it wants, and what constitutes “blight” is specifically defined in the TIF statute. If an area does not meet the definition of blight under the statute, the city will not be able to create a TIF there. |
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Term
| BIDs-business incentive districts |
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Definition
| Business Improvement Districts (BIDs) are commercial areas of the District that collect a "self tax" from property owners to provide services and programs to the entire BID. These programs address cleanliness, maintenance, safety, promotion, economic development, and other collective business issues in their coverage areas. |
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Term
| Urban entertainment centers |
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Definition
| Urban Entertainment Center, an American development of mixed use, containing entertainment facilities (cinemas, etc.) within a theme-park, shopping-centre, shoppingmall, etc. |
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Definition
| multi-block neighborhood located in Downtown Atlanta, Georgia. Most of the buildings that make up the district were designed by Atlanta architect John C. Portman, Jr.. Many of the buildings are connected by a network of enclosed pedestrian sky bridges. The district is served by the Peachtree Center MARTA station, providing access to rapid transit. |
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| Community action agencies |
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Definition
| According to 10 CFR 440.3 [Title 10 Energy; Chapter II Department of Energy; Subchapter D Energy Conservation; Part 440 Weatherization Assistance for Low-Income Persons], the term Community Action Agency means “ private corporation or public agency established pursuant to the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, Pub. L. 88-452, which is authorized to administer funds received from Federal, State, local, or private funding entities to assess, design, operate, finance, and oversee antipoverty programs.” |
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| a former United States Secretary of Transportation from 1993 to 1997 and United States Secretary of Energy from 1997 to 1998, during the presidency of Bill Clinton. |
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Definition
| The Giuliani administration advocated the privatization of failing public schools and increasing school choice through a voucher-based system.[73] Giuliani supported protection for illegal immigrants. He continued a policy of preventing city employees from contacting the Immigration and Naturalization Service about immigration violations, on the grounds that illegal aliens should be able to take actions such as sending their children to school or reporting crimes to the police without fear of deportation. |
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Term
| MBEs-Minority Business Enterprises |
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Definition
A minority-owned business is defined as being owned, capitalized, operated and controlled by a member of an identified minority group. The business must be a for-profit enterprise which physically resides in the United States or one of it territories. Identified "Minority groups" are generally defined as having an ethnic background consisting of Asian, Black, Hispanic, East Asian Indian and/or Native American. Some applications require US Citizenship, some applications accept legal residents. Some applications require a 75% ethnic heritage others will accept as little as one fourth. Note: Non-For-Profit companies DO NOT qualify for any certifications.
Ownership by minority individuals means the business is at least 51% owned by such individuals or, in the case of a publicly-owned business, at least 51% of the stock is owned by one or more such individuals. Further, the management and daily operations are controlled by those minority group members. Non-For-Profit agencies DO NOT qualify for ANY certifications. |
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| City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson |
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Definition
| Racial quotas for awarding government contracts are not justified by general statistical evidence of inequality. The city did not investigate any race-neutral methods to correct the imbalance, nor did its 30% goal correspond to any actual measured injury. Strict scrutiny is warranted, a test which Richmond's law fails. |
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Definition
| Proposition F is an amendment to the San Francisco Residential Rent Stabilization Ordinance, which covers limitations upon rent increases. It expands the application of financial hardship as grounds for suspending rent increases. |
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| Neighborhood Associations |
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Definition
A neighborhood association (NA) is a group of residents or property owners who advocate for or organize activities within a neighborhood. An association may have elected leaders and voluntary dues.
Some neighborhood associations in the United States are incorporated, may be recognized by the Internal Revenue Service as 501(c)(4) nonprofit organization, and may enjoy freedom from taxation from their home state. |
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Definition
| Government restriction, applicable to rental units in certain areas, in which a maximum is placed on the amount a landlord can charge a tenant. Rent control is a price ceiling imposed by the government, and is in place in many areas across the world. The practice is controversial, as some people believe it is necessary in order to prevent tenants from paying unfair rents and in order to allow as many individuals as possible access to good housing, while others feel that it could create a housing shortage due to increased demand, that a rent control situation will decrease the quality of available housing, or that it is simply unfair to the property owners. |
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Term
| Community Development Corps |
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Definition
| Community development corporations (CDCs) are locally based nonprofit organizations that work to help the residents of impoverished areas to improve their quality of life. Such organizations exist in virtually every major urban area of the United States today. CDCs provide residents with a variety of different benefits, including housing, day care for children, nursing home care for the elderly, employment opportunities, job training, and health care facilities. Some CDCs act as part-owners of vital businesses within their neighborhoods, like supermarkets and shopping centers, while others assist residents in starting their own small businesses. |
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Term
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Definition
A wide ranging social theory roughly stating that problems, if not dealt with as soon as they occur, become much worse than they would otherwise be.
The usual example given is the broken window in a neighborhood. If the window is not fixed as soon as possible, the bad element (whatever that is for that neighborhood) surmise that no one cares so they move it. Conversely, if it is fixed immediately, the bad element knows that people are aware and active in the neighborhood. |
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Definition
| There is no one commonly recognized definition of community policing, and there is an uncautious tendency to label anything and everything as community policing. However, a good working definition would be "a department-wide philosophy of full-service, personalized and decentralized policing, where citizens feel empowered to work in proactive partnerships with the police at solving the problems of crime, fear of crime, disorder, decay, and quality of life." After a brief overview, all the components (in italics) of this definition will have their meanings explained, and an attempt will be made to suggest some ways in which they can be measured. |
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Term
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Definition
| An unfunded mandate is when a new piece of Federal legislation would require another government agency, or the private sector, to perform functions for which it has no funds. When the Federal government prevents another government entity from imposing taxes, that is also considered an unfunded mandate. (The Unfunded Mandate Reform Act (UMRA) seeks to prevent unfunded mandates by identifying their costs. Since UMRA took effect in 1996, Congress has enacted fewer federal laws that impose unfunded mandates.) |
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| Tax exemptions-real property |
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Definition
| Buildings, the land they actually occupy, and additional adjacent land REASONABLY necessary for the convenient use of any such building shall be exempted from taxation if wholly owned by a qualifying agency.(real property:A property tax on local real estate that is calculated according to the fair market value of the real estate. That is, a real property tax is assessed as a percentage of the amount for which the owner would be able to sell the property in the current market. As a result, real property taxes increase when the local property market is bullish and decline when it is bearish.) |
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Term
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Definition
| Personal property tax is a tax which is based upon the value of taxable personal property. Personal property is everything that is not real property, that is to say, everything that is not real estate.(Taxable personal property consists of motor vehicles, trailers, mobile homes, watercraft, boat motors, aircraft, livestock, farm machinery and equipment, agricultural crops, and any other personal property not exempted by law. Taxation of business enterprises is not included here because its complexity is beyond the scope of this explanation.) |
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Term
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Definition
| A sum of money paid by the individual who chooses to access a service or facility. Examples of user fees include highway tolls, parking charges and national park entry fees. With user fees, the individual directly pays for something he wants and receives what he has paid for. In contrast, taxes must be paid by force and do not necessarily go toward a specific service or facility that an individual actually uses or benefits from. |
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Definition
| The addition of a permanent structural improvement or the restoration of some aspect of a property that will either enhance the property's overall value or increases its useful life. Although the scale of the capital improvement can vary, capital improvements can be made by both individual homeowners and large-scale property owners. |
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Term
| Tax anticipation notes (TANs) |
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Definition
| Short-term note issued by states and municipalities to finance current operations, with repayment from anticipated tax receipts. Also called a tax anticipation warrant. These notes are issued at a discount, have maturities of a year or less, and mature either at a specific future date or when property and other taxes are collected. Tax anticipation notes hold first claim on tax receipts when collected. See also Revenue Anticipation Note. |
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| Metropolitan Statistical Areas |
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Definition
| U.S. Government classification for a free-standing urban population center with a population in the urban center of at least 50,000 and a total MSA population of 100,000 or more. Buyers in MSAs typically exhibit social and economic homogeneity. MSAs usually border on non-urbanized counties. Peoria, Illinois, and Sheboygan, Wisconsin, are examples. |
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Term
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Definition
| Two concepts comparable in geographic scale are the 'urban field' and the 'poly-nucleated urban region'. The urban field was originally defined as a fusion of metropolitan and non-metropolitan spaces, with an extent of 'two hours' driving', or approximately 100 miles, from the core metropolitan area (Friedmann & Miller, 1965). Only recently the urban field concept seems to have gained some popularity in the Netherlands. In some cases, the term 'urban field' is literally used (Salet & Van Engelsdorp Gastelaars, 1996; VROM-Raad, 1998), while in other cases, the same phenomenon is dubbed 'poly-nucleated urban region' (Dieleman & Faludi, 1998). |
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Definition
| The movement of population and economic activity away from urban areas. The push factors include: high land values, restricted sites for all types of development, high local taxes, congestion, and pollution. The pull factors offered by small towns are just the reverse: cheap, available land, clean, quiet surroundings, and high amenity. Improvements in transport and communications have also lessened the attractiveness of urban centres, and commuters are often willing to trade off increased travel times for improved amenity. Furthermore, with the ageing of populations in the West, many no longer need to travel to work. |
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Term
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Definition
| a region or settlement that lies outside a city and usually beyond its suburbs and that often is inhabited chiefly by well-to-do families |
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Term
| CIDs (Common Interest Developments) |
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Definition
| A common interest development is real property that combines individual ownership (separate interests) with property held and managed in common among all of the owners (common area.) |
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Term
| Jane Jacobs- Death and Life of Great American Cities |
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Definition
| Jacobs' book is an attack on “orthodox” modern city planning and city architectural design. Looking into how cities actually work, rather than how they should work according to urban designers and planners, Jacobs effectively describes the real factors affecting cities, and recommends strategies to enhance actual city performance. |
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Definition
| Douglas Rae is the Richard Ely Professor of Political Science and Management and is affiliated with the Institute for Social and Policy Studies, and the Committee on Urban Studies.His research concerns cities in capitalist settings, political ideas, business and economic history, competitive strategy. |
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Definition
| William Jaird Levitt was an American real-estate developer widely credited as the father of modern American suburbia. |
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Definition
| An unincorporated community of southeast New York on western Long Island northeast of Hempstead. It was founded in 1947 as a low-cost housing development for World War II veterans. |
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| Jessie Nicholas - Kansas City |
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Definition
| was a prominent developer of commercial and residential real estate in Kansas City. He was born in Olathe, Kansas, attended the University of Kansas and Harvard University. His developments include the Country Club Plaza, the first suburban shopping center in the United States and the Country Club District, the largest contiguous master-planned community in the United States.(method:He called his method "planning for permanence," for his objective was to "develop whole residential neighborhoods that would attract an element of people who desired a better way of life, a nicer place to live and would be willing to work in order to keep it better." Nichols invented the percentage lease, where rents are based on tenants' gross receipts. The percentage lease is now a standard practice in commercial leasing across the United States.) |
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