Leo contended: Jesus made Peter the rock on which the church was to be built

Leo intervened in Council of Chalcedon with “Leo’s Tome” & asserted that Jesus is fully human, fully divine  

Leo rode out to meet Attila the Hun, “Scourge of God,” who turned away from Rome

Leo negotiated with Vandals, who sacked Rome but did not burn it

Leo gained authority in Rome to perform duties that civil authorities could not

Doctrine of purgatory: place of purification for those who die in sin

590-604 reign as Pope

As pope, Gregory ruled Rome; did not claim universal authority, but did see himself as patriarch of the West Negotiated peace settlement with Lombards

Doctrine of penance: contrition, confession, punishment, priestly absolution.

Those who die in faith & communion with church but without absolution go to purgatory Living can help the dead out of purgatory by offering masses on their behalf In mass, Christ sacrificed anew

480-543 Father of Western Monasticism

Established monastery at Monte Cassino (525) Autonomous, self-supporting, agricultural community Center for learning & preservation of culture Served as hospitals, pharmacies & hotels

The Benedictine Rule: A)Permanence B)Obedience to the Rule and to the abbot C)Physical Labor D)Prayer E)Study F)3 vows: poverty, chastity (celibacy) & obedience

Columba evangelized Scotland

Monk excommunicated for leading his clan in battle; in exile, he founded abbey at Iona

3 ideals: chastity, humility, community of goods

He & followers conducted missions in Scotland, converted pagan kings 635, monks from Iona established base at Lindisfarne, then moved southward to evangelize northern England

Sent by Gregory I to convert Saxons

Saxon King Ethelbert married Christian Bertha

He & clansmen converted 597 Augustine settled in Canterbury but was unable to unite Saxon Christians with Celtic Christians

Synod of Whitby (664)

Most of England adopted Roman Catholicism

Anglo-Saxon Monk & Missionary who evangelized Germans Method was to convert the chief/prince, then baptize & teach people

Ministered under papal & civil authority:

Charles Martel & Pepin the Short Anointed Pepin as king Speaking tube-ABDICATE

Charles Martel “the Hammer”

halted Muslim advance into France at Battle of Tours (732)

Extended kingdom into empire from Pyrenees to Danube, from Danish border to south of Rome

birth of Holy Roman Empire 800

Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor Christmas day 800

Charlemagne’s empire brought political structure to the West

Charlemagne involved himself in iconoclastic controversy (favored iconoclasm)

Images

Pictures used in worship mainly in East

Statues used in the West

date used to begin Muslim calendars

Muhammed went to Medina

622 AD in our calendar

Islamic Holy Book

Revelations of Allah to Muhammad over 20-year period Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s successor, ordered revelations & oral traditionsto be preserved Written in Arabic, true language of Allah Qur’an teaches one God (Allah) and the final revelation of his will which completes the work of the prophets

In narrow sense, “holy war” – armed struggle to advance Islam.

Literally, “exertion or effort”

In broad sense, it is considered the Sixth Pillar Inner aspect: exertion for piety Outer aspect: submission of community to pattern of Medina 

System of government in absence of a centralized authority

Power & wealth depended on property (land)

Private exercise of government by nobles over vassals through granting of property in return for service

Churchmen became subject to secular power

Many bishoprics & abbeys came under secular appointment Many churchmen became vassals of secular lords Mixture of religious & secular Secular lords influenced affairs of church Religious vassal was required to provide armies Church came into vast holdings through vassalage Church became more powerful & centralized Two chains of command developed for clergy Religious vassals owed loyalties to secular lords as well as to ecclesiastical superiors Led to clash between church & state Church became more powerful & centralized Pope became independent of Italian nobility Religious vassals appealed to Rome for relief from domination by secular lords Church used vast properties & dependence of secular lords upon religious vassals to exert pressure on those lords

Matt. 16:18-20

Peter & Paul were martyred in Rome

Irenaeus taught that Roman church was established by Peter

Council of Nicea gave regional authority to Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem

Council of Chalcedon: Leo’s letter was sent with “authority of Peter” & Leo’s ascendancy marked him as first pope

Political considerations Rome, as traditional center of Empire, had advantages as socio-political center Barbarian invasions & fall of Rome (476) left Rome with no political leaders

Roman bishops, Leo & Gregory, interceded to save Rome & establish alliances with invaders

Loss of major Christian holy places

Loss of Carthage,

origin of Latin Christianity Opposition to Christianity in Africa, Spain, Persia, and Eastern Europe

Christianity spread instead along North-South axis: British isles, Frankish kingdom & Italy

Separation of Western Christendom from Constantinople Ultimately: the Crusades

Church was only significant educator;influenced literature & legislation

Injected Christian values into knightly system of chivalry To small degree, inhibited some warfare (Truce of God – cessation of warfare on Sundays, Advent & Lent)

His reign led to East-West Schism

1048-1054 Appointed by Henry III of HRE, but walked barefoot into Rome to be elected by people

Accompanied by Humbert & Hildebrand(Gregory VII) Reforming Pope

1088-99 Pope of First Crusade

Another Cluniac reformer; last pope of Gregorian reform Decreed “Truce of God”

Urban II received request for help from East led to hope of reunion between eastern & western Christianity Eastern Emperor asked help from Pope Urban II: Turks threatened Byzantine empire Urban saw chance to reunite Christendom

Council of Clermont (1095)–Urban promised: Full remission of penalties for anyone going to fight Full remission of sins, with eternal reward, to those dying in the cause Protection of Peter, Paul, & Church for estates

Most powerful Pope

1198-1216 Zenith of Papacy 4th Crusade Innocent III sent this Crusade against Egypt Dominance of Church & State Influenced election of HRE Frederick II Forced King Philip II Augustus of France to reconcile with his wife Separated King Alfonso IX of Leon from his wife, who was too closely related England, Aragon, Portugal & Poland became papal fiefs (feudal taxes paid to papacy) Failure: Magna Carta (1215) was signed despite his objections that it challenged his authority Crusaders were sidetracked to sacking Constantinople – Eastern Christians Crusaders established “Latin Kingdom” Temporarily united East & West; 1261, recovered by Byzantines; schism was deeper than before

Unum Sanctum

Begin of the decline

r. 1294-1303 Boniface abused papal power through simony & nepotism

Kidnapped & humiliated by Philip’s henchmen

His arrogant over-assertion of papal power set stage for Avignon Papacy & Papal Schism

Gregory VII began ascent & Innocent III reached zenith; Boniface VIII descended foothills of papal power

War between Edward I of England & Philip IV the Fair of France

Excessive taxation of clergy to finance war Boniface forbade clergy to contribute to kings Unam Sanctum (1302) Christ’s 2 swords under pope’s control (Lk. 22:38)

Spiritual sword wielded by pope Temporal sword wielded by magistrate Temporal sword subservient to church Spiritual power can recall temporal power

Cistercian Monk

Called for second crusade

1090-1153 Gifted in meditation & preaching

Champion of ecclesiastical reform

Influenced popes

Hymn-writer

Hymns: O sacred Head now wounded, with grief and shame weighed down,Now scornfully surrounded with thorns, Thine only crown;How pale Thou art with anguish, with sore abuse and scorn!How does that visage languish, which once was bright as morn! Jesus, the very thought of TheeWith sweetness fills the breast;But sweeter far Thy face to see,And in Thy presence rest.

Archbishop of Canterbury

Four knights took Henry at his word & murdered Thomas on altar of Canterbury Cathedral, December 29, 1170

Henry wanted to try clergy in royal courts;

Thomas insisted on ecclesiastical trials; Henry passed Constitution of Clarendon Thomas denounced Clarendon; Henry falsely accused Thomas, who fled to France & appealed to Alexander Alexander negotiated Thomas’ return

Decline of the Popes

Immoral rule of Popes in the 900s

904-962 When HRE declined, so did papacy; political intrigue among rivals led to murder, imprisonment, etc. 904-62, series of immoral popes Papacy came under influence of licentious noblewomen, mistresses of popes Most powerful was Marozia, mistress of Sergius III (904-11); Marozia influenced elections of two popes after Sergius; their illegitimate son became John XI (931-5), who turned papal palace into brothel Marozia’s grandson became John XII (955-64) John XII crowned Otto I as emperor of HRE; then Otto deposed John Otto & his successors of the HRE dominated elections of many popes

Eastern and Western Church

Leo of Ochrid, Bulgarian archbishop, accused the West of heresy partly because of requiring clerical celibacy Leo IX, an advocate of the Cluniac reform, sent his friend, Cardinal Humbert, as his ambassador Humbert was a crusader, decrying married clergy and State authority over the Church While Patriarchal Bishop of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius, celebrated mass, Humbert laid a sentence of anathema on the altar of St. Sophia, excommunicating him Leo died only a month later The Great Schism of Western/ Roman Church and Eastern Orthodox Church resulted in part from opposition by Patriarchal Bishop of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius, against claims of papal monarchy by Leo IX 1054 – Great Schism between Western Church & Eastern Church Differences between West & East Language – Latin vs. Greek Culture – German vs. Hellenistic Church government – papal monarchy vs. council of bishops Clergy – clerical celibacy vs. family life for parish priest Baptism – sprinkling vs. triple immersion Lord’s supper – bread only vs. bread & cup Statues vs. icons

Call back to obediance, chastity, poverty

Opposed simony (buying an office) & lay investiture Forbade clerical marriage Promoted obedience Monks to superiors and Benedictine Rule Church to the Pope (who would head a great renewal) Centralized organization: one Abbey with branch houses Poverty? Ambivalent regarding poverty Good monk owned nothing, but a monastery could own vast properties and wealth Eventually Cluniac monks evaded simple life Wealth of monasteries invited simony

1098, Robert of Molesme founded monastery at Citeaux (formerly Cistercium)

Return to Benedictine simplicity

Plain facilities

Strict diet

Manual labor

Agriculture

Papacy was in France for 70 years

Babylonian captivity of the church

Monks became adept at copying the Bible and other books

Their houses became teaching centers, hospitals, pharmacies, and hotels

Monasteries preserved culture of the past

Monasteries provided only source of education; later provided educators for universities

Monks, especially Cistercians, cultivated unused land and made it productive

Monasticism allowed opportunities for women to serve the  church and to lead

Language: Latin (West) vs. Greek (East)

Culture: German (West) vs. Greek (East)

Church government: Papal monarchy vs. collection of the bishops in councils

Councils: East accepts only first seven Ecumenical Councils

Clergy: clerical celibacy vs. family life for local parish clergy

Theology: changes in the Nicene Creed West added filoque (“and from the Son”) in reference to the Holy Spirit

West returned to Apostles’ Creed

Worship Baptism: sprinkling vs. triple immersion

Lord’s Supper: bread only vs. bread and cup

Statues vs. icons

Pilgrimages to the Holy Land increased Means of acquiring merit (to help get into heaven or reduce time in purgatory)

Heightened after the year 1000 failed to bring Christ’s return

Conversion of Hungary (c.997) opened land route Muslims increased hardships on pilgrims; destroyed shrines in Jerusalem Crusades were fueled by desire to reclaim Holy Land and by hatred of Muslims Crusades became imitation of Muslim holy war Weakened Byzantine Empire left West vulnerable to Muslim invasion Victories by western armies in Italy, Spain led to idea of conquest in East Normans desired to drive Muslim from western Mediterranean & expand into Orient Feudalism & famine suppressed people, so many were eager for wealth & adventure Papal encouragement Urban II received request for help from East led to hope of reunion between eastern & western Christianity Promise of plenary indulgences offered full remission of sins

Crusades continued through 13th century; none were successful

New monastic orders: Knights Templar & Knights Hospitaller

Power & wealth of papacy increased

Increased interest in relics

At home crusading zeal turned toward fighting heresy Mistrust & enmity developed between East & West, Muslim & Christian Increased contact with Byzantine East & Islamic civilization Recovery of Aristotle; rise of scholarship Rise of city-states in Italy; trade networks begin to undermine feudalism

Knights Templar & Knights Hospitaller

Knights Hospitallers (1092): provided hospitality & care for sick among pilgrims & crusaders in Holy Land

Knights Templars (1128): provided  protection to pilgrims & crusaders;  fought in Crusades; later transported  ecclesiastical funds & established  banking houses

1170-1221 Born in Castile in pious family

Before his birth, his mother dreamed that within her womb was a dog who ran, bearing a torch that set world on fire; hence, Domini Canes (“Lord’s hounds”), a pun on his followers’ name

Studied, prayed & slept on bare earth

Only luxury was books, but even these he sold for sake of charity: “I could not bear to prize dead skins when living skins were starving and in want”

Prior of Augustinian Canons

Mission to Southern France; attempted to convert heretics through persuasion & example of personal deprivation

Developed order of preachers, trained in theology to combat heresy 1220, Pope Honorius III recognized Order of Preachers (O.P.)

1033-1109 Archbishop of Canterbury; considered “Father of Scholasticism”

Applied reason to truth known by faith

Used dialectic method: probing by reason, exploring “pros & cons” of issues 

1079-1142 Taught at the University of Paris His love affair with Heloise, niece of canon of Notre Dame led to exile

Use of reason: Focus on mind’s concept of universals What is real is what is in the mind of human because it reflects the mind of God Sic et Non (“Yes and No”) Presented theological questions & conflicting responses to show inadequacy of human authority

Not intended to undermine tradition of church but to stimulate discussion to resolve contradictions

Stimulated opposition from Bernard of Clairvaux, opponent of theological innovation Moral Influence Theory of the Atonement Jesus is our example and we receive atonement when we respond to his example

1100-1160 Taught at the University of Paris

Definition of 7 sacraments in the four books of Sentences (1150)

This work formed systematic theology textbook until 16th century

Sacraments release one’s will from captivity to sin and convey God’s grace

1225-1274 Dominican at Paris University Studied under Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus) at University of Paris Moderate Realist – via antiqua (old way)

Reality is the material world since God made it

Examine creation to discover truths about God

Writings Summa Contra Gentiles (1261-1264) Written to explain Christianity to Jews & Moors (Muslims) of Spain Summa Theologica (1265-1274)

Explanation of Lombard’s Sentences Both revealed & natural theology

Faith & reason work together Atonement involved satisfaction & moral influence God provides the satisfaction Humanity provides the response Salvation comes from grace & works to meet God’s standard of righteousness & holiness (concept borrowed from Aristotle’s Ethics) Sacraments are based on God’s grace & humanity’s works (semi-Augustinian view) Fallen humanity needs infusion of supernatural power from God to enable one to pursue perfection of one’s sin nature by good works Sacraments channel this power to person objectively & automatically God’s grace is only mediated through visible Catholic Church by priests who consecrate & convey sacraments Cosmological proofs for the existence of God Began with world as perceived by our senses, then showed that world required existence of God God is the unmoved mover God is the uncaused causer God is necessary; all else depends on God God is ultimate purpose who is end unto Himself God is ultimate value; superlative; absolutely perfect

1412-1431 Claimed to see visions of Sts. Catherine & Margaret & Archangel Michael

Supported French Dauphin Charles VII, who was losing the war

The “Maid of Orleans” inspired the French army to victory & attended Charles’ coronation

English captured her, tried her as a witch & burned her at the stake

1920, She was declared a saint by Roman Catholic Church

Brethren of the Common Life

Influenced almost all reformers

1340-84 Deventer, the Netherlands Ordained deacon & itinerant preacher Preached gospel of repentance to laity & clergy Preached against sins of clergy, monks & mendicant; aroused complaints against him Emphasized need for educated clergy Formed small band of 12 disciples, who became core of Brethren of the Common Life 1374, Organized Sisters of the Common Life

1466-1536 Born near Rotterdam, the Netherlands; illegitimate son of priest

Schooled at Deventer School of Brethren of Common Life

1486, entered Augustinian monastery

1492, ordained as priest

1495, entered University of Paris Traveled to Oxford Settled in Basel Goals: To reform Catholic Church from within and society through education & through recovery of literature of early church as guide To use linguistic tools of humanism for study of Bible and Greek & Latin fathers To emphasize piety and simple philosophy of Christ vs. scholastic theology To focus on changing practices and on educating clergy & laity Erasmus’ Writings: 1504, Enchiridion (“Handbook of the Christian Soldier”): Devotional work instructing ordinary Christians how to wear Christian armor; outline of Christian Humanist approach to reform 1509, In Praise of Folly: Satire of sins of priests, monks & nuns; humorous & widely popular 1516, Novum Instrumentum: First critical edition of Greek NT w/Latin Vulgate parallel 1524, On Free Will: Emphasized human free will vs. Luther’s Augustinian doctrine; Luther responded with On Bondage of the Will Most renowned scholar of his age; opposed to abstract speculation Theology consistent with medieval positions and acceptance of Catholic structures Writings influenced later Catholics & early Protestant leaders Desired moral reform of Catholic Church and helped pave way for Reformation, but was unwilling to break from Catholic Church “Erasmus” means “amiable”: He disliked strife Compared to Augustinianism of Luther, Erasmus’ theology was tinged with Pelagianism; hence, freedom vs. bondage of the will

Translated Bible from Latin into English

Lollards (mumblers) were his followers

Known as Morning Star of the reformation

1330-84 Oxford educator; opposed to Scholasticism; taught superiority of Bible; lectured through Bible Wycliffe desired to place Bible in hands of people in their own language, so he & followers translated Bible from Latin Vulgate into English (1381-84) Claimed ecclesiastical authority depended upon grace, so clergy not in state of grace could be deprived of endowments by civil power – led to denunciation by church but acclamation by state On the Church: Bible is sole criterion of doctrine to which no ecclesiastical authority may add; papal authority was not confirmed by Scripture (concurrent with Avignon Papacy & Great Papal Schism) On Apostasy: Appeal to state to reform entire ecclesiastical order On the Eucharist: Attack on transubstantiation – lost secular support Tried for heresy, placed under house arrest, removed from post at Oxford Never condemned & died in communion with church Council of Constance (1415) condemned him 1428, pope ordered remains exhumed, burned and ashes scattered Lollards (“mumblers”) continued to work underground Wycliffe’s emphasis that Scripture belongs to body of believers led his followers to continue translation of Bible into English after his death Influenced English Reformation 150 years later & Reformation in Bohemia under John Huss

Burned at the stake

1472-1415 Priest in Bohemia (Czechoslavakia); popular preacher in Prague;

Dean of School of Philosophy at University of Prague 1382, Anne of Bohemia married Richard II of England & invited Bohemians to study in England; they were influenced by Wycliffe & took his teachings back to Bohemia where they impacted Huss

True church is composed of those chosen or predestined by God

Christ, not Peter, is Rock on which church is built

There should be no civil punishment for religious heresy Bible is final authority for matters of doctrine

If pope or bishop does not obey Bible, he is not to be obeyed

Christ, not church, is only mediator between God & humanity

Only God can grant forgiveness, so for church to sell forgiveness through indulgences is to usurp God’s authority

Ransom – Origen spoke of Jesus delivering up his life to Devil in exchange for souls of humans, which Devil claimed as his due because of their sinfulness

Satisfaction theory of the Atonement:

Opposed to Ransom Theory

Based on feudal idea: humanity sinned & outraged majesty of God

God is infinite & payment for offense must be infinite

No human can make infinite payment

And human satisfaction had to be paid for human sin

Therefore, God became human to pay the infinite price as a human

Moral Influence Theory of the Atonement

Jesus is our example and we receive atonement when we respond to his example