Term
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Definition
Elaboration of the anterior portion of the CNS
Increase in number of neurons in the head
Highest level is reached in the human brain |
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Term
| During the first 26 days of development: |
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Definition
Ectoderm thickens forming the neural plate
The neural plate invaginates, forming the neural groove
The neural groove fuses dorsally and forms the neural tube |
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Term
| Prosencephalon – Mesencephalon –Rhombencephalon – |
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Definition
| The anterior end of the neural tube expands and constricts to form the three primary brain vesicles |
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Term
Telencephalon and diencephalon Mesencephalon
metencephalon and myelencephalon |
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Definition
| In week 5 of embryonic development, secondary brain vesicles form |
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Term
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Definition
Primary Brain Vesicles
the forbrain |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Telencephalon (farthest end of brain) and diencephalon (broken in 2 parts) |
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Term
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Definition
| in middle) remains undivided |
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Term
| Metencephalon and myelencephalon |
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Definition
| (covered in myelin sheath) arise from the hindbrain |
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Term
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Definition
Fates of the secondary brain vesicles:
–(becomes cerebral hemisphere/ becomes bigger and bigger until it becomes the brain) cerebrum: cortex, white matter, and basal nuclei |
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Term
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Definition
Fates of the secondary brain vesicles:
becomes thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus |
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Term
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Definition
Fates of the secondary brain vesicles:
–(becomes midbrain) brain stem: midbrain |
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Term
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Definition
Fates of the secondary brain vesicles:
becomes brain stem: pons and cerebellum |
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Term
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Definition
Fates of the secondary brain vesicles:
becomes brain stem: medulla oblongata |
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Term
Adult structures derived from the neural canal
[image] |
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Definition
Telencephalon – lateral ventricles
Diencephalon – third ventricle
Mesencephalon – cerebral aqueduct
Metencephalon and myelencephalon – fourth ventricle |
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Term
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Definition
| (white matter in the middle/ gray matter to the outside) |
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Term
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Definition
Similar to spinal cord but with additional areas of gray matter
Cerebellum has gray matter in nuclei
Cerebrum has nuclei and additional gray matter in the cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| Arise from expansion of the lumen of the neural tube |
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Term
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Definition
The paired C-shaped lateral ventricles
The third ventricle found in the diencephalon
The fourth ventricle found in the hindbrain dorsal to the pons |
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Term
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Definition
Form the superior part of the brain and make up 83% of its mass
Contain ridges (gyri) and shallow grooves (sulci)
Contain deep grooves called fissures
Are separated by the longitudinal fissure
Have three basic regions: cortex, white matter, and basal nuclei |
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Term
| Deep sulci divide the hemispheres into five lobes: |
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Definition
| Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insula (under the temopal lobe) |
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Term
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Definition
| – separates the frontal and parietal lobes |
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Term
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Definition
| – separates the parietal and temporal lobes |
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Term
| The precentral and postcentral gyri |
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Definition
| border the central sulcus |
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Term
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Definition
| – superficial gray matter; accounts for 40% of the mass of the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| Each hemisphere acts contralaterally (controls the opposite side of the body/ left side opperates on right and right opporates on left) |
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Term
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Definition
Hemispheres are not equal in function
No functional area acts alone; conscious behavior involves the entire |
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Term
| The three types of functional areas of the cerebral cortex |
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Definition
| motor, sensory and association areas |
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Term
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Definition
| areas of the cerebral cortex that control voluntary movement |
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Term
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Definition
| areas of the cerebral cortex where conscious awareness of sensations occur |
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Term
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Definition
| integrate diverse information |
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Term
| Primary (somatic) motor cortex |
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Definition
Cerebral Cortex: Motor Areas
(if something happens to it the association area in the front has the ability to take over/ why people who have a stroke can relearn stuff) |
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Term
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Definition
| associational area. Where we smooth out movements so they’re not jerky. |
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Term
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Definition
Located anterior to the inferior region of the premotor area
Present in one hemisphere (usually the left)
A motor speech area that directs muscles of the tongue
Is active as one prepares to speak |
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Term
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Definition
Located anterior to the premotor cortex and superior to Broca’s area
Controls voluntary eye movement |
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Term
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Definition
| understanding the spoken word |
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Term
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Definition
Located in the precentral gyrus
Pyramidal cells whose axons make up the corticospinal tracts
Allows conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements |
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Term
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Definition
| upside-down and contralateral |
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Term
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Definition
Located anterior to the precentral gyrus
Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills
Coordinates simultaneous or sequential actions
Involved in the planning of movements |
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Term
| Primary Somatosensory Cortex |
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Definition
Located in the postcentral gyrus, this area:
Receives information from the skin and skeletal muscles
Exhibits spatial discrimination (able to tell which body region is being stimulated) |
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Term
| Primary Somatosensory Cortex |
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Definition
Located in the postcentral gyrus, this area:
Receives information from the skin and skeletal muscles
Exhibits spatial discrimination (able to tell which body region is being stimulated) |
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Term
| Somatosensory Association Cortex |
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Definition
Located posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex
Integrates sensory information
Forms comprehensive understanding of the stimulus
Determines size, texture, and relationship of parts |
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Term
| Primary visual (striate) cortex |
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Definition
Seen on the extreme posterior tip of the occipital lobe
Most of it is buried in the calcarine sulcus
Receives visual information from the retinas |
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Term
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Definition
Surrounds the primary visual cortex
Interprets visual stimuli (e.g., color, form, and movement) |
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Term
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Definition
Located at the superior margin of the temporal lobe
Receives information related to pitch, rhythm, and loudness |
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Term
| Auditory association area |
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Definition
Located posterior to the primary auditory cortex
Stores memories of sounds and permits perception of sounds
Wernicke’s area: understanding speech |
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Term
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Definition
Located in the anterior portion of the frontal lobe
Involved with intellect, cognition, recall, and personality
Necessary for judgment, reasoning, persistence, and conscience
Closely linked to the limbic system (emotional part of the brain) |
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Term
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Definition
| sounding out unfamiliar words |
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Term
| Lateral prefrontal cortex |
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Definition
| – language comprehension and word analysis |
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Term
| Lateral and ventral temporal lobe |
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Definition
| coordinate auditory and visual aspects of language |
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Term
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Definition
Located in a large area surrounding the left (or language-dominant) lateral sulcus
Major parts and functions:
Wernicke’s area –sounding out unfamiliar words
Broca’s area – speech preparation and production
Lateral prefrontal cortex – language comprehension and word analysis
Lateral and ventral temporal lobe – coordinate auditory and visual aspects of language |
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Term
| General (Common) Interpretation Area |
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Definition
Ill-defined region including parts of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes
Found in one hemisphere, usually the left
Integrates incoming signals into a single thought
Involved in processing spatial relationships |
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Term
| Visceral Association Area |
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Definition
Located in the cortex of the insula
Involved in conscious perception of visceral sensations |
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Term
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Definition
Cerebral White Matter
connect different parts of the same hemisphere |
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Term
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Definition
Cerebral White Matter
enter the hemispheres from lower brain or cord centers |
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Term
| The corpus striatum is composed of three parts |
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Definition
Caudate nucleus
Lentiform nucleus –
fibers of internal capsule running between n thrugh caudate and lentiform nuclei |
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Term
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Definition
| composed of the putamen and the globus pallidus |
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Term
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Definition
Central core of the forebrain
Consists of three paired structures – thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
Encloses the third ventricle |
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Term
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Definition
Paired, egg-shaped masses that form the superolateral walls of the third ventricle
Connected at the midline by the intermediate mass
Contains four groups of nuclei – anterior, ventral, dorsal, and posterior
Nuclei project and receive fibers from the cerebral cortex |
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Term
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Definition
Sensual afferent impulses converge and synapse here
Impulses of similar function are sorted out, edited, and relayed as a group
All inputs ascending to the cerebral cortex pass through
Mediates sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory |
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Term
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Definition
| Located below the thalamus, it caps the brainstem and forms the inferolateral walls of the third ventricle |
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Term
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Definition
Small, paired nuclei bulging anteriorly from the hypothalamus
Relay station for olfactory pathways |
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Term
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Definition
stalk of the hypothalamus; connects to the pituitary gland
Main visceral control center of the body |
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Term
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Definition
Regulates blood pressure, rate and force of heartbeat, digestive tract motility, rate and depth of breathing, and many other visceral activities
Perception of pleasure, fear, and rage
Maintains normal body temperature
Regulates feelings of hunger and satiety
Regulates sleep and the sleep cycle |
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Term
| Endocrine Functions of the Hypothalamus |
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Definition
Releasing hormones control secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary
The supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei produce ADH and oxytocin |
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Term
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Definition
| Most dorsal portion of the diencephalon; forms roof of the third ventricle |
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Term
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Definition
| part of the epithalamus that – extends from the posterior border and secretes melatonin |
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Term
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Definition
| a structure that secretes cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) |
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Term
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Definition
Consists of three regions – midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
Similar to spinal cord but contains embedded nuclei
Controls automatic behaviors necessary for survival
Provides the pathway for tracts between higher and lower brain centers
Associated with 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves |
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Term
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Definition
Nuclei that control cranial nerves III (oculomotor) and IV (trochlear)
Corpora quadrigemina – four domelike protrusions of the dorsal midbrain
Superior colliculi – visual reflex centers
Inferior colliculi – auditory relay centers |
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Term
| Midbrain structures include: |
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Definition
Cerebral peduncles – two bulging structures that contain descending pyramidal motor tracts
Cerebral aqueduct – hollow tube that connects the third and fourth ventricles
Various nuclei |
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Term
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Definition
– four domelike protrusions of the dorsal midbrain
Superior colliculi – visual reflex centers
Inferior colliculi – auditory relay centers |
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Term
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Definition
Midbrain Nuclei
– functionally linked to basal nuclei (review Parkinson’s Disease) |
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Term
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Definition
Midbrain Nuclei
– largest nucleus of the reticular formation; are relay nuclei for some descending motor pathways |
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Term
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Definition
Forms part of the anterior wall of the fourth ventricle
Connect higher brain centers and the spinal cord
Relay impulses between the motor cortex and the cerebellum (cerebellar peduncles) |
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Term
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Definition
Origin of cranial nerves V (trigeminal), VI (abducens), and VII (facial)
Contains nuclei of the reticular formation
Regulates normal breathing rhythm |
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Term
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Definition
Most inferior part of the brain stem
Along with the pons, forms the ventral wall of the fourth ventricle
Contains a choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle
contains pyramids |
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Term
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Definition
| two longitudinal ridges formed by corticospinal tracts |
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Term
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Definition
(What kind of signals do the pyramids carry?)
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Term
| Decussation of the pyramids – |
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Definition
| crossover points of the corticospinal tracts |
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Term
| (What is the consequence of decussation?) |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
medulla nuclei
– gray matter that relays sensory information |
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Term
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Definition
medulla nuclei
– gray matter that relays sensory information |
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Term
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Definition
Cranial nerves X, XI, and XII are associated with the medulla
Vestibular nuclear complex – synapses that mediate and maintain equilibrium
Ascending sensory tract nuclei, including nucleus cuneatus and nucleus gracilis |
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Term
| Cardiovascular control center – |
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Definition
| adjusts force and rate of heart contraction |
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Term
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Definition
| centers – control rate and depth of breathing |
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Term
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Definition
| regulate vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, coughing, and sneezing |
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Term
| (Which type of cells are conspicuously absent from the vomit center? Why?) |
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Definition
| Astrocytes. They keep toxins out of the brain. The toxins have to enter this center in order for u to throw up |
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Term
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Definition
Makes up 11% of the brain’s mass
Provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction
activity occurs subconsciously |
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Term
| How do the cerebellar homunculi relate to the cerebral homunculi? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Folia – transversely oriented gyri
Each hemisphere has three lobes – anterior, posterior, and flocculonodular
Neural arrangement – gray matter cortex, internal white matter, scattered nuclei, Purkinje cells |
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Term
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Definition
Three paired fiber tracts that connect the cerebellum to the brain stem
All fibers in the cerebellum are ipsilateral |
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Term
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Definition
| connect the cerebellum to the midbrain |
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Term
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Definition
| connect the pons to the cerebellum |
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Term
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Definition
| connect the medulla to the cerebellum |
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Term
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Definition
Cerebellum receives impulses of the intent to initiate voluntary muscle contraction
Proprioceptors and visual signals “inform” the cerebellum of the body’s condition
Cerebellar cortex calculates the best way to perform a movement
A “blueprint” of coordinated movement is sent to the cerebral motor cortex |
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Term
| Cerebellar Cognitive Function |
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Definition
Plays a role in language and problem solving
Recognizes and predicts sequences of events |
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Term
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Definition
Limbic system in charge of emotions
Reticular formation |
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Term
Limbic System
Structures located on the medial aspects of cerebral hemispheres and diencephalon Includes: |
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Definition
the rhinencephalon (“nose brain”)
amygdala (“almond”)
hippocampus (“sea horse”)
fornix (“arch”)
hypothalamus (“ hmm” ?)
cingulate gyrus (“girdle”)
anterior nucleus of the thalamus |
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Term
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Definition
Limbic System
– deals with anger, danger, and fear responses (deals w/ the sympathetic nerveous system) |
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Term
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Definition
Limbic System
plays a role in expressing emotions via gestures, and resolves mental conflict. |
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Term
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Definition
Puts emotional responses to odors – e.g., skunks smell bad
Involved in psychosomatic illness |
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Term
| The limbic system interacts with the prefrontal lobes, therefore: |
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Definition
One can react emotionally to conscious understandings
One is consciously aware of emotion in one’s life |
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Term
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Definition
Limbic System: Emotion and Cognition
convert new information into long-term memories |
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Term
Raphe nuclei
Medial (large cell) group
Lateral (small cell) group |
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Definition
reticular formation
Composed of three broad columns along the length of the brain stem |
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Term
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Definition
| Has far-flung axonal connections with hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebellum, and spinal cord |
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Term
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Definition
Encompasses perception of sensation, voluntary initiation and control of movement, and capabilities associated with higher mental processing
Involves simultaneous activity of large areas of the cerebral cortex
Is superimposed on other types of neural activity |
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Term
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Definition
| consciousness is defined on a continuum that grades levels of behavior – alertness, drowsiness, stupor, coma |
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Term
| There are two major types of sleep: |
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Definition
Non-rapid eye movement (NREM)
Rapid eye movement (REM) |
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Term
| Characteristics of REM sleep |
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Definition
EEG pattern reverts through the NREM stages to the stage 1 pattern
Vital signs increase
Skeletal muscles (except ocular muscles) are inhibited
Most dreaming takes place |
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Term
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Definition
| Alternating cycles of sleep and wakefulness reflect a natural |
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Term
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Definition
Although RAS activity declines in sleep, sleep is more than turning off RAS
The brain is actively guided into sleep
The suprachiasmatic and preoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus regulate the sleep cycle
A typical ____ alternates between REM and NREM sleep |
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Term
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Definition
Those deprived of ____ sleep become moody and depressed
______ sleep may be a reverse learning process where superfluous information is purged from the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| (working memory/ reverberating) – a fleeting memory of the events that continually happen lasts seconds to hours and is limited to 7 or 8 pieces of information |
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Term
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Definition
| parellel processing) has limitless capacity |
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Term
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Definition
| subconscious information stored in LTM (ex. What color a speaker’s tie is) |
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Term
| Fact memory involves the following brain areas: |
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Definition
Hippocampus and the amygdala, both limbic system structures
Specific areas of the thalamus and hypothalamus of the diencephalon
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the basal forebrain |
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Term
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Definition
Corpus striatum – mediates the automatic connections between a stimulus and a motor response
Portion of the brain receiving the stimulus
Premotor and motor cortex |
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Term
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Definition
Neuronal RNA content is altered
Dendritic spines change shape
Extracellular proteins are deposited at synapses involved in LTM |
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Term
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Definition
Number and size of presynaptic terminals may increase
More neurotransmitter is released by presynaptic neurons
New hippocampal neurons appear |
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Term
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Definition
| is involved with Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ influence at synapses |
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Term
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Definition
| Protective mechanism that helps maintain a stable environment for the brain |
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Term
| Bloodborne substances are separated from neurons by: |
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Definition
Continuous endothelium of capillary walls
Relatively thick basal lamina
Bulbous feet of astrocytes |
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Term
| Blood-Brain Barrier: Functions |
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Definition
Selective barrier that allows nutrients to pass freely
Is ineffective against substances that can diffuse through plasma membranes |
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Term
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Definition
| increases the ability of chemicals to pass through the blood-brain barrier |
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Term
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Definition
| Protected by bone, meninges, and CSF |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| interneurons and somatic motor neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| – contain sympathetic nerve fibers |
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Term
| Four zones are evident within the gray matter – |
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Definition
| somatic sensory (SS), visceral sensory (VS sensory information from organs), visceral motor (VM), and somatic motor (SM) |
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Term
| White Matter: Pathway Generalizations |
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Definition
Pathways decussate
Most consist of two or three neurons
Most exhibit somatotopy (precise spatial relationships)
Pathways are paired (one on each side of the spinal cord or brain) |
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Term
| White Matter: Pathway Generalizations |
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Definition
Pathways decussate
Most consist of two or three neurons
Most exhibit somatotopy (precise spatial relationships)
Pathways are paired (one on each side of the spinal cord or brain) |
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Term
| The central processes of first |
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Definition
| -order neurons branch diffusely as they enter the spinal cord and medulla |
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Term
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Definition
Some branches take part in spinal cord reflexes
Others synapse with second-order neurons in the cord and medullary nuclei |
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Term
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Definition
| Fibers from touch and pressure receptors form collateral synapses with interneurons in the dorsal horns |
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Term
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Definition
send impulses to the sensory cortex
These pathways are responsible for discriminative touch and conscious proprioception |
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Term
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Definition
| Nonspecific pathway for pain, temperature, and crude touch within the lateral spinothalamic tract |
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Term
| Specific and Posterior Spinocerebellar Tracts |
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Definition
Specific ascending pathways within the fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus tracts, and their continuation in the medial lemniscal tracts
The posterior spinocerebellar tract |
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Term
| Descending (Motor) Pathways |
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Definition
Descending tracts deliver efferent impulses from the brain to the spinal cord, and are divided into two groups
Direct pathways equivalent to the pyramidal tracts
Indirect pathways, essentially all others |
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Term
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Definition
| Motor pathways involve two neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| originate with the pyramidal neurons in the precentral gyri |
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Term
| The Direct (Pyramidal) System |
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Definition
| Impulses are sent through the corticospinal tracts and synapse in the anterior horn |
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Term
| The Direct (Pyramidal) System |
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Definition
Stimulation of anterior horn neurons activates skeletal muscles
Parts of the direct pathway, called corticobulbar tracts, innervate cranial nerve nuclei
regulates fast and fine (skilled) movements |
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Term
| Indirect (Extrapyramidal) System |
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Definition
Includes the brain stem, motor nuclei, and all motor pathways not part of the pyramidal system
This system includes the rubrospinal, vestibulospinal, reticulospinal, and tectospinal tracts |
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Term
| Indirect (Extrapyramidal) System |
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Definition
These motor pathways are complex and multisynaptic, and regulate:
Axial muscles that maintain balance and posture
Muscles controlling coarse movements of the proximal portions of limbs
Head, neck, and eye movement |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Superior colliculi and tectospinal tracts |
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Definition
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Term
| Developmental Aspects of the CNS |
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Definition
CNS is established during the first month of development
Gender-specific areas appear in response to testosterone (or lack thereof) |
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Term
| Developmental Aspects of the CNS |
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Definition
Maternal exposure to radiation, drugs (e.g., alcohol and opiates), or infection can harm the fetus’ developing CNS
Smoking decreases oxygen in the blood, which can lead to neuron death and fetal brain damage |
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Term
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Definition
| The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the CNS to |
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Term
| Developmental Aspects of the CNS |
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Definition
Visual cortex develops slowly over the first 11 weeks
Growth and maturation of the nervous system occurs throughout childhood and reflects progressive myelination |
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Term
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Definition
| brings some cognitive declines, but these are not significant in healthy individuals until they reach their 80s |
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