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what children think about themselves and how they would describe themselves; "This is who I am"
18-21 months
develops in gradual steps |
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when children are around 5-6, they start making evaluations about elements of who they are; judgements or opinions about things about themselves; "I'm the fastest kid on my block"
Social comparison appears
Susan Harter |
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the emotional feelings you have about components of yourself; positive or negative
highly correlated with depression, and also early sexual activity, eating disorders, teen pregnancy, poor grades, drop out rates, and suicide rates.
measured by paper-and-pencil tests (is this like or unlike you?)
Age 1-5: usually very high, almost unrealistic or unwarranted; not sure how self-aware they are because of this
Age 6-10: more realistic; start to see gender differences; still relatively high, but in a normal range
Age 11↑: drops mostly for early maturing, white, middle-class girls (probably because of the body image expected of pubescent girls; value on appearance) |
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| comparing self worth/abilities to peers; make judgements about abilities of self and others |
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interested in studying how children develop self-evaluation; does it change? does it develop?
studied preschool, middle childhood, and adolescence
Studied perceived competency
when perceived competency matches personal importance, self-esteem is high |
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| the biological determination of an animal |
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| the behavioral characteristics of male and female |
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| Girls and boys are equally good at math, but by puberty boys outperform on math reasoning (word problems) |
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| Biological evidence for gender differences |
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1. Testosterone- leads to higher activity levels and higher aggression
2. Brain differences- right brain develops quicker and earlier in males prenatally, and continues to be dominant through childhood; left brain develops faster in females |
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| Social influence on gender differences |
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1. Parents treat boys and girls differently in play, and the same-sex parent plays with the child more often
2. Parents give boys more freedom earlier, and tend to protect their daughters
3. Parents spend more time on homework with boys than with girls, and more time on math and science with boys; parents, teachers, and guidance counselors all tend to push males toward advanced math and science courses |
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| Cognitive Developmental Approach |
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Kohlberg; gender identity
(2-2.5) Once gender identity is established, they start to process information specific to their gender
(4-5) Gender stability- understanding that your gender will not change over time
(5-7) Gender constancy- gender won't change even if appearance changes |
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| one's own gender identity dictates how we process information; what doesn't fit with the gender schema? |
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| Maccoby; supporting actions of others in the group; mostly in groups of girls |
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| Maccoby; interactions inhibit partners or cause them to withdraw; mostly in groups of boys |
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when children develop a sense of right and wrong and how/when they behave accordingly
Cognitive and behavioral elements |
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based on Piaget-- children's world views change as...
when kids make a moral decision, he felt that it was dependent upon the child's level of cognitive processing at the time |
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| moral dilemmas have more impact; will not lie or steal, no matter the situation; mostly in women |
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| those who are more attentive to issues of justice around them and who internalize justice as a moral virtue |
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represent relationships with one individual
3-7 years: play-based friends (who they play with most often) (terminates quickly if one child moves away)
8-11 years: loyal and faithful (qualities of the person)
12 years and up: intimate friends (always talk about trust and sharing secrets, and unconditional acceptance) |
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| helps the researcher see the make-up of a peer group |
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| a picture of the peer group hierarchy |
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| Dodge's ML/LL groups; receive the most liked votes, tend to exhibit high levels of positive social and cognitive behavior, exhibit lower levels of aggression and withdrawal, most likely to be leaders according to teachers and other staff |
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| Dodge's ML/LL groups; receive votes frequently but less frequently than the popular children, possess positive social skills but to a lesser degree than popular children |
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| Dodge's ML/LL groups; aren't rated like or disliked, are less aggressive, reject offers of play |
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Dodge's ML/LL groups; we are most worried about these children, because they are outwardly and aggressively rejected (victimized); rated least liked, highly aggressive or purposefully very withdrawn, show poor social skills
often end up being bullies |
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| Dodge's ML/LL groups; received both most-liked and least-liked votes, majority of the class votes LL but they all like each other, don't fall into rejected category because they are friends with each other |
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| 7x more likely to fail a grade, 4x more likely to drop out before grade 10; higher rates of delinquency, substance abuse, depression, violence and aggression, and low self-esteem |
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constant or persistent pattern of behavior that tends to target the same victim or group of victims and has a dimension of imbalance of power
30% of students K-12 have reported that they were involved in some kind of bullying incident (either a victim or a perpetrator); boys are more likely to directly bully boys, girls are more likely to indirectly bully girls
show less remorse, perspective taking, and empathy; are more tolerant of aggressive behavior; and are quite secure in their self-esteem; more likely to be rejected in sociometric studies
direct bullying: face-to-face
indirect bullying: relational aggression; cyber-bullying |
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| not randomly chosen; about 10% of children report being persistently bullied; often socially incompetent (neglected and some rejected-withdrawn children) |
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| exposure to behaviors aimed at damaging relationships or one's social reputation, such as exclusion, manipulation, and rumor spreading |
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| Belsky, 1971; child influences parents, parents influence child, parents influence each other, and that interaction influences the child |
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| divorce rate has dropped since the 90s from 50% to 41% for first marriages, 63% for second marriages, 71% for third marriages |
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| developmental psychologist who studies divorce; responsible for two longitudinal studies on divorce to try to understand its effects on children |
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