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Chapters 6, 7, 8, and 9
flashcards for ed psych
130
Psychology
Undergraduate 3
10/25/2011

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Term
Behaviorism
Definition
A theory that explains learning in terms of observable behaviors and how they're influenced by stimuli from the enviornment.
Term
Learning (behaviorism)
Definition
A relatively enduring change in observable behavior that occurs as a result of experience.
Term
Classical Conditioning
Definition
a type of learning that occurs when individuals learn to produce involuntary emotional or phsyiological responses similar to instinctive responses.
Term
Unconditioned Stimulus
Definition
an object or event that causes an instinctive or reflexive (unlearned) physiological or emotional response.  Pavlov's experiment- meat powder
Term
Unconditioned Response
Definition
The instinctive or reflexive (unlearned) physiological or emotional response caused by the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov's experiment-dog's salivation from meat powder
Term
Neutral stimulus
Definition
An object or event that doesn't initially impact behavior one way or the other. -lab assistants
Term
Conditioned stimulus
Definition
A formerly neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus. - Lab assistants 
Term
Conditioned response
Definition
A learned physiological or emotional response that is similar to the unconditioned response. - dog's salivation in absence of meat powder
Term
Generalization
Definition
The process that occurs when stimuli similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response by themselves
Term
Discrimination
Definition
The process that occurs when a person gives different responses to similar but not identical stimuli
Term
Extinction(classical conditioning)
Definition
The disappearance of a conditioned response as the result of the conditioned stimulus occuring repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
Term
Operant conditioning
Definition
A form of learning in which an observable response changes in frequency or duration as a result of a consequence.
Term
Consequence
Definition
Event (stimulus) that occurs following a behavior and that influences the probability of the behaviors recurring.
Term
Reinforcer
Definition
a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior recurring
Term
Reinforcement
Definition
The process of applying reinforcers to increase behavior
Term
Positive Reinforcement
Definition
The process of increasing the frequency or duration of a behavior as the result of presenting a reinforcer.
Term
Premack Principle
Definition
the principle stating that a more-desired activity can serve as a positive reinforcer for a less-desired activity
Term
Negative reinforcement
Definition
The process of increasing behavior by avoiding or removing an aversive stimulus.
Term
Shaping
Definition
The process of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.
Term
Reinforcement schedules
Definition
Different patterns in the frequency and predictability of reinforcers that have differential effects on behavior
Term
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Definition
A reinforcement schedule where every desired behavior is reinforced
Term
Intermittent reinfocement schedule
Definition
a reinforcement schedule where some, but not all, behaviors are reinforced
Term
ratio schedule
Definition
an intermittent reinforcement schedule where specific behaviors are reinforced, either predictably (fixed) or unpredictably (variable).
Term
interval schedule
Definition
an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which behaviors are reinforced after a certain predictable interval of time has passed (variable).
Term
Extinction (operant conditioning)
Definition
The disappearance of a behavior as a result of nonreinforcement
Term
Satiation
Definition
The process of using a reinforcer so frequently that it loses its potency-its ability to strengthen behaviors
Term
Punishers
Definition
Consequences that weaken behaviors or decrease the likelihood of the behaviors' recurring
Term
Punishment
Definition
The process of using punishers to decrease behavior.
Term
Presentation punishment
Definition
A decrease in behavior that occurs when a stimulus (punisher) is presented.
Term
Removal Punishment
Definition
A decrease in behavior that occurs when a stimulus is removed, or when an individual cannot receive positive reinforcement.
Term
Desists
Definition
Verbal or nonverbal communications that teachers use to stop a behavior.
Term
Timeout
Definition
The process of isolating a student from his or her classmates.
Term
Antecedents
Definition
Stimuli that precede and induce behaviors
Term
Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
Definition
The process of systematically applying the principles of behaviorism to change student behavior.
Term
Steps in Applied Behavior Analysis
Definition

1. Identify target behaviors

2. Establish a baseline for the target behaviors

3. Choose reinforcers and punishers

4. Measuer changes in target behaviors

5. Gradually reduce the frequency of reinforcers as behavior improves.

Term
Functional Analysis
Definition
A strategy used to identify antecedents and consequences that control a behavior.
Term
Social Cognitive Theory
Definition
A theory of learning that focuses on changes in behavior that result from observing others.
Term
Albert Bandura
Definition

Person who came up with social cognitive theory

Term
Ivan Pavlov
Definition
Person who discovered classical conditioning
Term
B.F. Skinner
Definition
Person who discovered operant conditioning
Term
Learning (cognitive)
Definition
A change in mental processes that creates the capacity to demonstrate different behaviors.
Term
Reciprocal causation
Definition
The interdependence of the enviornment, behavior, and personal factors in learning
Term
Modeling
Definition
A general term that refers to behavioral, cognitive, and affective changes deriving from observing one or more models
Term
Cognitive modeling
Definition
The process of performing a demonstration combined with verbalizing the thinking behind the actions
Term
Vicarious learning
Definition
The process of people observing the consequences of other's actions and adjusting their own behavior accordingly
Term
Inhibition
Definition
A self-imposed restriction on one's behavior
Term
Self-regulation
Definition
The process of setting personal goals, combined with the motivation, thought processes, strategies, and behaviors that lead to reaching the goals.
Term
Cognitive behavior modification
Definition
A procedure that combines behavioral and cognitive learning principles to promote behavioral change in students through self-talk and self-instruction
Term
Cognitive Learning Theories
Definition
Theories that explain learning in terms of changes in the mental structures and processes involved in acquiring, organizing, and using knowledge
Term
Information processing theory
Definition
A theory that describes how information enters our memory system, is organized, and finally stored
Term
Memory stores
Definition
Repositories that hold information, in some cases in a raw state, and in others in organized, meaningful form.
Term
Sensory memory
Definition
The memory store that briefly holds incoming stimuli from the enviornment until they can be processed.
Term
Working memory
Definition
the store that holds information as people process and try to make sense of it.  The workbench of the mind, where conscious thinking occurs and where individuals construct knowledge
Term
central executive
Definition
a supervisory component of working memory that controls the flow of information to and from the other components
Term
phonological loop
Definition
short term storage system for words and sounds in working memory
Term
maintenance rehearsal
Definition
the process of repeating information over and over, either out loud or silently, without altering its form
Term
visual-spatial sketchpad
Definition
a short-term storage system for visual and spatial information in working memory
Term
short-term memory
Definition
historically, the part of our memory system that temporarily holds information until it can be processed.
Term
cognitive load
Definition
the amount of mental activity imposed on working memory
Term
chunking
Definition
the process of mentally combining separate items into larger, more meaningful units
Term
automaticity
Definition
The ability to perform mental operations with little awareness or concious effort.
Term
long-term memory
Definition
the permanent information store in the model of human memory
Term
declarative knowledge
Definition
knowledge of facts, definitions, procedures, and rules
Term
semantic memory
Definition
memory for concepts, principles, and the relationships among them
Term
episodic memory
Definition
memory for personal experiences
Term
procedural knowledge
Definition
knowledge of how to perform tasks
Term
conditional knowledge
Definition
knowledge of where and when to use declarative and procedural knowledge
Term
schemas
Definition
cognitive constructs that organize information into meaningful systems on long-term memory
Term
meaningfulness
Definition
the extent to which information in long-term memory is interconnected with other information
Term
scripts
Definition
schemas for events that guide behavior in particular situations
Term
attention
Definition
the process of conciously focusing on a stimulus
Term
perception
Definition
the process people use to find meaning in stimuli
Term
encoding
Definition
the process of representing information in long-term memory
Term
imagery
Definition
the process of forming mental pictures of an idea
Term
dual-coding theory
Definition
a theory suggesting that long-term memory contains two distinct memory systems: one for verbal information and one that stores images
Term
organization
Definition
an encoding strategy that involves the clustering of related items of content into categories that illustrate relationships
Term
schema activation
Definition
an encoding strategy that involves activating relevant prior knowledge so that new knowledge can be connected to it.
Term
elaboration
Definition
an encoding strategy that increases the meaningfulness of new information by connecting it to existing knowledge
Term
analogies
Definition
descriptions of relationships between ideas that are similar in some but not all respects
Term
mneumonic devices
Definition
memory strategies that create associations that don't exist naturally in the content
Term
forgetting
Definition
the loss of, or inability to retrieve, information from long-term memory
Term
interference
Definition
the loss of information because something learned either before or after detracts from understanding
Term
proactive interference
Definition
the loss of new information because of the influence of prior learning
Term
retroactive interference
Definition
the loss of previously learned information because of the influence of new learning
Term
retrieval
Definition
the process of pulling information from long-term memory into working memory
Term
metacognition
Definition
our awareness of and our control over our cognitive processes
Term
metta-attention
Definition
knowledge of and control over the ability to pay attention
Term
metamemory
Definition
knowledge of and control over our memory strategies
Term
constructivism
Definition
a theory of learning suggesting that learners create their own knowledge of the topics they study rather than receiving that knowledge as transmitted to them by some other source
Term
cognitive constructivism
Definition
a constructivist view that focuses on individual, internal constructions of knowledge
Term
social constructivism
Definition
a view of constructivism suggesting that learners first construct knowledge in a social context and then individually internalize it.
Term
sociocultural theory
Definition
a form of social constructivism that emphasizes the social dimensions of learning, but places greater emphasis on the larger cultural contexts in which learning occurs
Term
community of learners
Definition
a learning enviornment in which the teacher and all the students work together to help everyone achieve.
Term
cognitive apprenticeship
Definition
the process of having a less-skilled learner work at the side of an expert to develop cognitive skills
Term
situated cognition
Definition
a theoretical position in social constructivism suggesting that learning depends on, and cannot be separated from, the context in which it occurs
Term
transfer
Definition
the ability to take understanding acquired in one context and apply it to a different context
Term
real-world task (authentic task)
Definition
a learning activity in which students practice thinking similar to that required in the real world
Term
misconception
Definition
a belief that is inconsistent with evidence or commonly accepted explanations
Term
high-quality examples
Definition
examples that include all the information learners need to understand a topic
Term
concept
Definition
a mental construct or representation of a category that allows one to identify examples and nonexamples of the category
Term
Characteristics
Definition
A concept's defining elements
Term
Prototype
Definition
in concept-learning theory, the best representation of a category or class
Term
Exemplars
Definition
In concept-learning theory, the most highly typical examples of a concept
Term
problem
Definition
A state that occurs when a problem solver has a goal but lacks an obvious way of achieving the goal
Term
well-defined problem
Definition
a problem that has only one correct solution and a certain method for finding it
Term
ill-defined problem
Definition
a problem taht has more than one acceptable solution, an ambiguous goal, and no generally agreed-upon strategy for reaching a solution
Term
algorithm
Definition
a specific set of steps for solving a problem
Term
heuristics
Definition
general, widely applicable problem-solving strategies
Term
means-ends analysis
Definition
a heruistic that breaks a problem into subgoals and works successively on each
Term
drawing analogies
Definition
a heuristic that is used to solve unfamiliar problems by comparing them with those already solved
Term
experts
Definition
individuals who are highly skilled or knowledgeable in a given domain
Term
creativity
Definition
the ability to produce original work or solutions to problems that are productive
Term
divergent thinking
Definition
the ability to generate a variety of original answers to questions or problems
Term
problem-based learning
Definition
a teaching strategy that uses problems as the focus for developing content, skills, and self-regulation
Term
worked examples
Definition
problems with completed solutions that provide students with one way of solving the problems
Term
strategies
Definition
cognitive operations that exceed the normal activities required to carry out a task
Term
metacognition
Definition
awareness of, and control over, our cognitive processes
Term
study strategies
Definition
specific techniques students use to increase their understanding of written materials and teacher presentations
Term
guided notes
Definition
teacher-prepared handouts that "guide" students with cues and space available for writing key ideas and relationships
Term
concept mapping
Definition
a learning strategy in which learners construct visual relationships among concepts
Term
network
Definition
a concept map illustrating nonhierarchical relationships
Term
text signals
Definition
elements included in written materials that communicate text organization and key ideas
Term
summarizing
Definition
the process of preparing a concise description of verbal or written passages
Term
comprehension monitoring
Definition
the process of checking to see if we understand what we have read or heard
Term
elaborative questioning
Definition
the process of drawing inferences, identifying examples, and forming relationships in the material being studied
Term
critical thinking
Definition
an individual's ability and inclination to make and assess conclusions based on evidence
Term
belief preservation
Definition
the tendency to make evidence subservient to belief, rather than the other way around
Term
transfer
Definition
the ability to take understanding acquired in one context and apply it to a different context
Term
general transfer
Definition
the ability to apply knowledge or skills learned in one context in a variety of different contexts
Term
specific transfer
Definition
the ability to apply information in a context similar to the one in which it was originally learned
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