1 Hz = 1.0 × 10^-6 MHz

1 MHz = 1.0 x 10⁶ Hz 

E_photon = hv = hc

                    λ

Ionization Energy 

When does it increase/decrease and why?

*IN GAS PHASE*

- Increases (harder to remove e-) from left to right.

This is because there the electrons are more tightly bound as you go from left to right and it is harder to remove.

- Decreases (easier to remove e-)from up to down.

This is because the electrons being removed are farther from the nucleus and therefore, the electron is easier to remove.

Electron Affinity 

When does it increase/decrease and why?

*IN GAS PHASE*

- Generally, increases (more negative - more E is released) from left to right because as you go through a period, the elements become more willing to gain electrons.

- Generally, decreases (becomes more positive - less E is released) from up to down because the orbitals are increasing in size and the electron is added further away from the nucleus.

Electron Affinity

What is it?

The energy change associated with the addition of an electron to a gasous atom:

X(g) + e^- --->X^-

Ionization Energy

What is it?

Energy required to remove an electron from an atom

X --> X⁺ + e^-

Atomic Radius

When does it increase/decrease and why?

- Decreases from left to right.

This is because the valence electrons are drawn closer to the nucleus, decreasing the size of the atom.

- Increases from up to down.

This is because of the increase in orbital size.

Lowest electron configuration for an atom is the one having the maximum number of unpaired electrons allowed by pauli principle in a particular set of degenerate orbitals.

2P ^  ^  ^ lower than 2P ^v  ^

What makes X³⁺ smaller than X²⁺? 

ex) Al³⁺ < Al²⁺ < Al⁺ < Al

Ionization Energy – Between nitrogen and oxygen, there is a break in the trend because oxygen is more willing to lose its electron due to electron repulsion.

Electron Affinity – Between carbon and nitrogen, there is a break in the trend because nitrogen is more unwilling to gain an electron due to electron repulsion.

n - whole numbers from 1, 2, 3,...

Refers to size of orbital

L - 0, 1, 2,...(n-1)

Refers to shape of orbital

L=0, S (sphere)

L=1, P (figure eight)

L=2, D (flowerything)

L=3, F

m_L : -L...0...L

Orientation of orbital

1 = s = 1 orbital = 2 electrons

2 = p = 3 orbitals = 6 electrons

3 = d = 5 orbitals = 10 electrons

4 = f = 7 orbitals = 14 electrons

Frequency:       ν = c/λ

Wavelength:     λ = c/ν

A hydrogen atom’s e^- moves around the nucleus only in certain allowed circular orbits. This was proved false for anything other than the H atom.

As protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build up the elements, electrons are added to these hydrogen-like orbitals (square method)

All orbitals with the same value of n have the same energy.

 the coordinates of an electron’s position in three-dimensional space. A specific wave function is called an orbital. Developed by Schrodinger.

 E = –2.178 x10^-18 (z²/n²),

where n is the level, z is the atomic number