• Two-way relationship with semantic development. Children rely on semantic understanding for irregular verb forms (and are processed in a different part of the brain than regular verb forms)
• Syntax is used for individual word learning. 
• A child categorizes a new word into a syntactic category, noting how the word is used by others so that he can then incorporate it into his own speech. 
• Caregivers point out word differences in their explanations to children. (e.g. nouns are introduced with little explanation whereas adjectives are given contrast and described)
• Nouns that are not easily identiable as person, places, or things are learned by their syntactic categories for understanding. 
• The brain predicts the next word in sentences based on syntactic patterns and grammatical and pragmatic cues. Meaning is found in the individual words and their combinations.
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• Children under age 3 do not fully understand the subject-verb-object word order
• Many sentence types used by children after 3 are learned with specific verbs and then generalized to language rules later. (word by word-->created rules)
• Form abstract utterance-level constructions by creating analogies among utterances. They categorize whole utterances and other linguistic constructions  (i.e. Mommy is planting the flowers. Daddy is walking the dog...A is B-ing the C)
• Largely influenced by the language they hear
• ENGLISH=MORPHOLOGICALLY POOR because of few verb endings (as compared to Spanish which has multiple/numerous conjugations
• ORDER OF ACQUISITION
• Present progressive -ing, regular plural -s, possessive's, regular past -ed, regular third person -s
• Child must learn to appropriately segment words into morphemes and categorize words into semantic classes. This might cause a child to undersegment (He throw-uped--placing the morphological marker at the end of up instead of the irregular verb threw) oversegment (a dolts instead of adults...thinking that the a is an article--too many morphemes segmented...See-attle instead of seattle)
• Children may also miscategorize verbs, which might result in errors (like I am hating her)
• Reflects phonologic AND semantic rule
• Moves from specific to general
• Morphophonemic rules (child may not recognize that bridges, cats, dogz are the same morphological marker)

• am, is, are, was were
• when used as a main verb and followed by a noun, adjective, adverbs, or prepositional phrases.
• Mastered at 4

• a quantitative value that is a moderate predictor of the complexity of the language of young English-speaking children. 
• Up to an MLU of 4 corresponds to increases in utterance complexity. After 4.0 the utterance length slows and individual variation increases, resulting in less reliable measure.
• between 18 months and 5 years, MLU increases by 1.2 morphemes per year.
• May describe language development of children with disorders
• May not be reliable for other languages because utterance length may not increase with complexity. 

• Appear by 40 months
• could, would, should, must, might
• appear in negatives and interrogatives.
• Used to express moods or attitudes such as ability (can), permission (may), intent (will), possibility (might), and obligation (must).

• Verbs express existence, action, or occurrence.
• A VERB phrase is a construction includes the verb and all that follows, including noun phrases
• Child acquires the words verb by verb, then begins to understand its purpose and application as a category of words.
• Elements: Modal auxiliary (may, can, will must, might, should, could would), Perfective auxiliary (have, has, had) To be verb (am, is, are, was, were, be, been), Negative (not), passive (been, being), Verb, prepositional phrase
• All of Sally's friends may have been running to the store

/∫/, /s/, /z/, (ch), (dg), (d like measure)

If a word ends in this, the plural marker is /Ιz/ or /∂z/ (like bridges or peaches)

Sounds made by directing the air with the tongue to the back of your teeth (fricatives and affricates)

• Bound morphemes are phonologically reduced and unstressed monosyllabic bits of language
• Carry very little concrete semantic information and may be redundant (e.g. two kittens...2 indicates more than 1, and the "s" ending indicates plural but is redundant information to the number 2)
• Grammatical morphemes or at least their phonological morphemes are multifunctional. (e.g. cats, cat's)
• Moms help with grammatical morphemes through the use of recast or reformulated utterances
• begin to develop at 2.0-2.5 (around 2nd birthday) and is gradual and varies from child to child

initially expressed as present progressive (happening now) and only with -ing, but no auxiliary verb.

Only used with action verbs and not verbs of state (you would not say I am sadding or He was happying)

• Singular noun is uninflected/unmarked because there is no morpheme to indicate it is the singular form
• Regular form learned orally prior to age 3 (27-33 months)
• Iregular form learned later and depends on the child's environment
• Learned in a U-shaped fashion (starts out with it not being used at all, then it occurs in selected instances, then it is over-generalized to include irregular plurals, then the two are differentiated appropriately)
•  

• originally marked with word order and stress
• mastered late
• First appears as Mommy purse instead of Mommy's
• alienable objects are possessed first, then inalienable (clothing vs. arm)
• Then goes to It's my_________ or It's Fitz's ______

• Overgeneralized in the beginning (comed, goed, eated, falled)
• but the overgeneralization does not occur from irregular to regular, maybe having to do with the brain processes and learning to differentiate irregularities in the system, realizing those are not the norms
• May experience a period of overlapping overgeneralized/correct form

Regular 3rd person singular -s

• He shop(S)
• person marker governed by the person (I, you, he/she) and number (I vs. we)
• Present-tense verb marker is only on the -s
• Other forms are not unmarked/uninflected (I run, you run).
• Mastery at 3.5-4 years old
• Period of inconsistent use (which may be influenced by quality of nouns, like animate or inanimate)
• Use may also be influenced by adult interrogatives in which the inflection is transferred to the auxiliary verb (Where does the dog sleep? The dog sleep in the bed)
• Not used in AAE
• FUll understanding takes longer than correct production.
• Dependent on the complexity of the verb stem (vowel endings easier than consonant endings)

• Comparative and superlative (-er/-est) 5 vs. 3.5
• specific forms like better best take longer
• derivational noun suffix -er (teach-->teach-ER) learned at around 5.
• Later learned perhaps because of its complexity
• some rely on the -man suffix (policeman, busman, postman)

• Initial development of verb markers related to semantic aspect
• Child begins with protoforms that are general/nonspecific. Once the general forms develop, the markers start forming.

Order of acquisition of morphological marker

-ing progressive

-s plural

's possessive

-ed verb ending, regular past tense

-s verb ending regular third person singular

Temporal or time properties of situations referred to by items in a sentence.

May also refer to dynamic of changing situation, or continuing singular incident and whether the action is complete or incomplete

(types of verbs differ in whether the situation has an inherent endpoint)

• Function as the noun in the sentence.
• Many elements involved in the phrase, and complicated
• (Initiator--only, less than, nearly, especially partially; Determiner--quantifier: all, both, half, no, one-tenth,  article: a, an, the Possessive: My hour, his, her, demonstratives: this, that, those, these, numerical: one, two thirty, one thousand; Adjective--possessive nouns, ordinal, adjective, descriptor;Noun--Pronoun, Noun; Prepositional phrases)
• Example: Nearly all of Mary's friends
• AGE 2: Children learn adjectives do not go in front of pronouns and proper nouns...Won't say: little he or The Juan
• AGE 3: NP elaboration with the addition of each of the major elements except initiator
• Confusion with post-noun modifiers (the dog in the car)

• A, an, the
• appear around age 2
• A used for nonspecific reference (a cat does not pertain to any cat in particular) and definite the denotes specific reference.
• New information marked with a, old information signaled by the + noun
• A starts out predominating
• Mastered by 36 months
• Know not to apply it to mass nouns (sand, water, salt)

• Speech Time; Reference Time---Event Time (Present) Event time and speech time are the same; both are in the present. No marking
• Speech Time; Reference Time---Event Time (Past); Event Time (Present) By age 1.5-3 children speak of events in the past and the present with a reference only to the present
• Speech Time---Reference Time/Event Time (Past), Reference Time/Event Time (Present), Reference Time Event Time (Future) By 3-3.5 development of a reference other than the present. An event may be described in a limited manner from the reference of the past, present, or future. Sense of reference other than present
• Speech Time---Event Time---Reference Time By 3.5-4, child develops a flexible system that enabes him to describe the events in the past, present, or future from the perspective of all three times.
• yesterday, tomorrow (because they are from the perspective of the present) come before before and after (because they may have a perspective of a different reference other than the present)

• start with in/on/to
• then more complex structures like draw star on me, people on their boat
• Age 3 the child has sufficient flexibility to talk explicitly about location event with three participants (Mommy put cereal in my bowl)

• Between 2/3
• "to" ommission
• semi-infinitives (gonna, wanna)
• Then give way to infinitive form phrases

• Begins in the declarative form
• SVO appears at around 30 months
• 2.5-3.0/33months auxiliary verb forms do,c an be, will appear (S A V O)
• At age 4, indirect objects appear (SVIO-->SVO I+to)

• First learned/indicated by intonation
• Age 4=question everything time
• Prevalent in adult speech to children
• Frequency of question types determined by frequency of caregiver use
• Types of questions/topics change after 18 months
• First, to attain joint attention (What do you see? Can you see the birdie, too?), confined by immediate environment
• Imitiated/copied at one-word level with rising intonation
• move to what/where questions (heavily used by parents to encourage speech)
• 2.75-3.5, inversion of subjects and auxiliary verbs (What can we do? vs. What we can do?)
• 2.25-2.75= what/where with subject/predicate
• 40 months, basic adult form attained
• negative modal auxiliary 'do' occurs in declaratives AND interrogatives, but positive modal auxiliary 'do' occurs mostly in interrogatives (You don't frequently say,"I do love ice cream!")
• Most errors made with "why" questions
• Errors from least to greatest are: can, will, does, do
• Higher error in negative questions
• Declaratives > interrogatives production
• Substitution errors occur at times when the child is least familiar with the auxiliary verb. Children may not have the semantic knowledge at this point, either.
• Noun substitutions (what/where) vs. Semantic relations (how/why)
• Interrogative begins to concern itself with tensing and modals (at around 3.75-4.5 MLU)
• TAG questions appear late (3 phases, using okay/right, then negation of the proposition: You like cookies, do you?, and then the full tag at around 5, you like cookies, don't you)

• Appear at 2.5 years
• Speaker requests, demands, asks, insists, commands.
• Uninflected verb and you, understood, subject.
• Examples: Give me a cookie, please.

• 5 forms: not/n't attached to verb; negative words, like nobody/nothing, determiner no used before nouns or nounlike words, as in no cookies for you; negative adverbs like never/nowhere; negative prefixes like un/dis/non
• single-word form, no is first to appear usually 
• Next the negative +sentence nucleus is in relation to a proposed or current course of action (do you want to take a bath? No take a bath)
• MLU of 2.25 appears contractions, interchangeably
• Then 2.75-3.5 3-year old develops auxiliary forms and uses the positive form (REMEMBER negatives appear first)
• NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVES APPEAR after 5
• Double negatives also appear, even in adult language (may appear in language learners as well since this is acceptable in other languages)

• EMBEDDING: Inserting an dependent clause into another clause! (independent and dependent clause marriage)
• Dependent clauses (in other words noun/verb, but not independent stand-alone sentences)
• Form COMPLEX (not compound) sentences
• two types for pre-schoolers: object noun-phrase complements and relative clauses (appearing at age 3)I know that you can do it. I think that I like stew.
• For verbs think, guess, see, say, wish, know, hope, like, let, remember, forget, look, and show in the subordinate clause
• For verb think in the independent clause.
• Attention-getting verbs like Look/see (second type)
• FORM OF EMBEDDING
• Full relative clauses appear at age 4, but are not attached to the subject until after 5
• Later forms include conjoined clauses and embedding in the same sentence

• "and" is the first conjunction word appearing in listed entitites between 25 and 27 months
• Age 3, ordered series begin with and
• 3.5 MLU because appears
• CLAUSAL CONJOINING OCCURS AT 3.5 (for additive purposes)
• then moves to simultaneous/sequential events
• then a contrasting relationship with BUT
• Order of conjunction acquisition: and, if, because, when, but, so
• Because is particularly difficult because of a need for reversibility/causality, as is so

• Begins at CV syllable structure, baby babble
• CVCV desire causes final consonant deletion (usually disappearing by age 3)
• Deletion of unstressed syllables
• Consonant cluster reduction occurs to reduce complexity
• Bilingual 3-4 year olds speech sound development slower
• EPENTHESIS: VOWEL INSERTION
• Reduplication: One syllable becomes the same as the next (wawa for water)
• Back assimilation dog becomes gog
• Substitution processes: Fronting palatals/velars become alveolars (/k/-->/t/)