1. Our human ancestors began more than 150,000 years ago in the high grasslands and wooded slopes of EASTERN Africa.

2. One important change in human lifestyle was the development of agriculture around  10,000 years ago, with its more fixed communities 

3. Biologically primary abilities such as language are easily acquired and have been part of human life from the earliest times, whereas secondary abilities such as reading or higher mathematics require effort and are of relatively recent origin.

4. Human infants are born in an undeveloped state compared to other species; for example, the human brain grows to about 4  times its birth size. 

5. Newborn human infants show a ROOTING reflex when their lips are touched, and this helps a new mother begin to produce milk. 

6. Bowlby assumed that the relative immaturity of the human infant resulted in attachment being a SLOWER process in humans than in other primates.

7. At around nine months, human infants develop a form of social fear known as stranger anxiety, which drives the infant to maintain proximity and physical contact with the mother.

8. Based on his experiments with infant monkeys, Harlow concluded that is contact comfort that binds the infant to the mother. 

9. Suomi’s studies of rhesus monkeys raised by their biological mothers or with peers suggest that early attachment relationships can have an important bearing on the dvlpmnt of interpersonal skills.

10. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic pattern of behavior for an infant that has developed a secure attachment with its caregiver?

 The infant shows more interest in the toys than the mother, showed less distress when the mother leaves and less positive emotion when she returns.

11. Ainsworth described three patterns of attachment styles. Describe.

Secure attachment- infant engages in active exploration, becomes upset when mother leaves, and shows positive emotion when mother returns.

avoidant style- Infant shows more interest in toys than mother. Shows less distress when mother leaves, and less positive emotion when she returns.

anxious/ambivalent- Infant appears preoccupied with having access to the mother and shows protest on her separation. When mother returns, infant may show anger or ambivalence toward her.

12. The neuropeptide oxytocin may be related to the development of social attachment as well as the expression of social behaviors in females. 

13. Organisms that evolved to produce lots of offspring are said to have adopted an r-selection strategy, whereas those that produce few offspring are said to have adopted a K-selection strategy. 

14. Environmental factors are able to influence developmental processes from the earliest manifestation of the organism; in fact, all genetic processes in humans, with the exception of BLOOD TYPE can be influenced by environmental factors. 

15. Research suggests that newborns come into the world with mechanisms that predispose them to look at MOTHER/CAREGIVER/PARENTS FACE

1. Human infants find human faces, voices, and movements highly interesting. 2. Infants can perceptually analyze and discriminate human stimuli. 3. Infants seek to attend to and interact with other human. 4. Infants respond differently to humans than they do to objects.

17. Burghardt suggested five criteria for characterizing play. Describe

1. Play is not fully functional in the context in which it is expressed. That is to say, engaging in play does not contribute to an organism's survival at that moment.

2. Play appears to be spontaneous, engaged in voluntarily, pleasurable, and done for its own sake.

3. Play tends to be characterized by incomplete, exaggerated, and sometimes awkward movements. In this sense, it differs from behaviors performed in the service of more serious processes seen in adults related to survival and sexuality. Further, in some species, play is only seen in juveniles.

4. Play occurs repeatedly in a similar form. This repetition of patterns is seen in play and games in both humans and other animals.

5. Play tends to take place when organisms are well-fed, healthy, and free from stress. It has been observed that play is one of the first types of behavior to drop out when animals are hungry, threatened, or in a difficult environment.

18. One common theory of rough-and-tumble play suggests that it is preparation for later dominance challenges.

19. Longitudinal studies on aggression show that for males, physical aggression during childhood predicts which individuals become anti social during adolescence. Boys show more aggression from infancy to adolescence than do girls but females show more indirect forms of aggression than males, which may include talking about others in a negative way.

20. Individuals are labeled as “anti social” if they cannot inhibit aggressive impulses

21. When theory of mind tasks have been given around the world, it is observed that the ability develops at about the same in all cultures, generally when the child is 3-5 years old.

22. Around the end of the first year of life, the infant becomes aware of what other people are looking at. This aspect of development is referred to as a(n) SHARED ATTENTIONAL MECHANISM

23. Describe Simon Baron-Cohen’s model of the developmental aspects of inferring mental states in another person :

1.      Child begins to develop during the first nine months of life is an intentionality detector. Infant tends to interpret movement in a two-person relationship as desire and goal directed.

2.      Eye direction detector tends to develop at the same time. Infant infers that another person            is looking at him or her or. looking at something else. Seen at the end of the first year of life.

3.      Shared attentional mechanism. Infant is aware that the mother, for example, knows where the baby is looking.

4.      Theory of mind mechanism. Seen after at least 2 years of age. Enables a child to infer what           one knows by observing what one sees. Ex: If one child sees another child watching an adult hide a toy under the pillow, then the first child could infer that the second child knows where the toy is.

5.      ???       pg 180 somewhere

Intellect- Sees the world through analysis and asks what something is.

Feeling- Asks whether something is agreeable.

Sensation- How does it work?

Intuition- Asks what pattern  

25. Sheldon developed a personality theory that combined physical body type with temperament, suggesting that an individual could be described as one of three types. Describe:

endomorph (soft and round, relaxed sociable temperament),

mesomorph (muscular, strong, low in fat. Energetic and assertive temperament)

ectomorph (Long and thin. Cerebral and introverted temperament).

26. Agreeableness is a personality trait associated with being sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest, and straightforward. 

27. Based on cross-cultural tests of their model, McCrae and Costa suggest that the five factors of personality be considered as biologically based tendencies, as opposed to culturally conditioned characteristic adaptations.

28. Nettle examined the Big Five personality traits and suggested that each of the dimensions has a particular advantage given certain environmental conditions. For example, in dangerous times, neuroticism may confer a survival advantage. 

Hypothesis 1: people should be naturally proficient in personality judgement. Hypothesis 2: personality judgement abilities should form a distinct part of the phenotype. Hypothesis 3: the ability to form personality judgements should emerge without explicit training and perhaps in spite of incompatible social inputs. Hypothesis 4: Personality judgement should be ubiquitous; a variety of studies show that people almost cannot stop themselves form judging others in terms of personality features, and that these judgements are made quickly and without conscious reasoning.

30. In the SECURE attachment style, the infant shows more interest in the toys than the mother and shows less distress when the mother leaves and less positive emotion when she returns. 

31. One explanation for the lack of human genetic diversity is the occurrence of specific events in human history that reduced the size of the population of humans on earth; these events are referred to as BOTTLENECKS

32. The term EPIGENETIC is often used to describe conditions in which processes are open to modification during development. 

33. According to Bowlby, attachment is a process in which the mother is able to reduce fear by direct contact with the infant, providing a kind of support called a “secure base.”

34. To research attachment patterns experimentally, Mary Ainsworth developed the STRANGE SITUATION, which involves having the mother momentarily leave the infant with an unknown person and then returning. 

35. LIFE HISTORY theory was developed in biology to understand evolved strategies including behavioral, physiological, and anatomical adaptations that influence survival and reproduction; it offers a means of considering various evolved traits by articulating the cost, benefits, and tradeoffs of different patterns of development. 

36. One theory that has attempted to describe the close relationship between genes and the environment in relation to development is the DEVELOPMENTAL SYSTEMS approach, which sees development as interplay between a variety of levels, including genes, neural activity, behavior, environment, culture, and society. 

37. Epigenesis refers to the emergence of new structures and functions during the course of development; its rules relate to the manner in which environmental influences can impact the expression of the genome without directly changing the DNA, even though these patterns of gene expression can be passed on to future generations. 

38. We must consider how particular behaviors or processes might prepare a child for actions in the future, rather than just the present, and such characteristics that serve later adult development are referred to as deferred adaptations.. 

39. Not all characteristics of infants and children are preparations for adulthood; characteristics that serve only the developmental period are referred to as ontogenetic adaptations. 

40. True episodic memory is more than just recalling your participation in a particular event; it also includes the ability to do this without any situational cues for its recall in the present. 

41. Unlike object play or role play, which is engaged in equally by both males and females, rough-and-tumble play is engaged in far more by males than females. 

42. Role play is seen across cultures and often reflects tasks that the children observe their parents or elders engaging it; there is some suggest that it is related to theory of mind. 

43. The ability to take another’s perspective is referred to as theory of mind; it develops during the preschool years, and is seen as a prerequisite for the ability to engage in pretend play and to lie. 

44. BELIEF DESIRE reasoning suggests that you understand another person by inferring what they desire and what they believe; you accomplish this first by knowing your own motivations and then by understanding the other person’s motivations may be different. 

45. PERSONALITY refers to an individual’s particular characteristics, especially behaviors that are consistent over time. 

46. Openness is a personality trait associated with curiosity, flexibility, and artistic sensitivity, including imaginativeness and the ability to create a fantasy world. 

47. One possible mechanism to account for the stability of personality traits across generations is the mechanism of assortative mating, whereby humans do not randomly choose partners but rather choose partners who are like themselves on some selected traits. 

48. Belsky suggests that different infant VARIATION  styles may be productive in difficult environments and may adapt children to life in a world where people and resources are unpredictable, leading to different mating and parenting strategies than are found in children raised in more supportive environments. 

49. Initially, it is the mother who offers a SECURE BASE to her infant in terms of food, comfort, and protection; as the infant begins to explore on its own, she monitors its behaviors and typically keeps it within arm’s length. 

50. Based on his studies of attachment in infant monkeys, Harlow concluded that it is CONTACT COMFORT and not feeding per se that binds the infant to the mother. 

51. Discuss Bowlby’s research on early attachment relationships. What did he find?

 The infant shows more interest in the toys than the mother, showed less distress when the mother leaves and less positive emotion when she returns.

Describe the procedure Ainsworth developed to examine attachment styles. What did she find?

She placed a mother and child in a room alone. Then the mother would be taken away and replaced by a stranger. The child's reactions would be reported and then then it's behaviors when the mom returned to comfort it were noted also. She found that the three secure attachment patterns are 1) engaging in active exploration, 2) being upset when mother is gone and 3) showing positive emotions when the mother returns. 

52. Discuss Bjorklund and Blasi’s (2005) six tenets of evolutionary psychology.

Bjorklund and Blasi's Six Tenets of Evolutionary Psychology:

1. It is important to distinguish and specify the differences that evolutionary principles apply across the lifespan from infants, to children, to adults.

2.  It is important to consider the manner in which the activities of children are the expression of evolved epigenetic programs. So, how is the behavior of children influenced by inherited traits useful for survival.

3. The ability of children to adapt is remarkable. Children can adapt to their environments quickly and efficiently. Children must constantly analyze their surroundings and respond if their behavior is not beneficial. Example: those that are neglected will "realize" that they need to be more independent and adapt thusly.

4. We have longer childhoods than other primates because our societies and cultures are more complex and we need that time to understand them and behave accordingly.

5.  Much of our "play" is suited to prepare us for adulthood. Boys play war and girls play house.

6. Not all childhood action or behavior is in preparation for adulthood. Some of it is useful only for the situations we find ourselves in as we grow up.

53. What is the role of play in humans and other mammal species? Discuss Burghardt’s (2004) five criteria for characterizing play.

54. Discuss theory of mind and belief-desire reasoning. What is the “false-belief” task, and how is it used to study the development of theory of mind? What components are involved in the development of the ability to infer another's mental states?