Term
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Definition
4.1: Introduction
4.2: Metabolic Processes
4.3: Control of Metabolic Reactions
4.4: Energy for Metabolic Reactions
4.5: Cellular Respiration
4.6: Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis
4.7: Changes in Genetic Information |
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Term
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Definition
Metabolic processes – all chemical reactions that occur in the body
There are two (2) types of metabolic reactions: |
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Term
| There are two (2) types of metabolic reactions: |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Larger molecules are made from smaller ones
Requires energy
Anabolism provides the materials needed for cellular growth and repair
Dehydration synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
Larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones
Releases energy
Used to decompose carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
Water is used to split the substances
Reverse of dehydration synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
Type of anabolic process
Used to make polysaccharides, triglycerides, and proteins
Dehydration synthesis
Produces water |
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Term
| Control of Metabolic Reactions |
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Definition
Enzymes
Enzyme Action
Cofactors and Coenzymes
Factors That Alter Enzymes
Regulation of Metabolic Pathways |
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Term
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Definition
1. Control rates of metabolic reactions
2. Lower activation energy needed to start reactions
3. Most are globular proteins with specific shapes
4. Not consumed in chemical reactions
5. Substrate specific
6. Shape of active site determines substrate |
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Term
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Definition
Metabolic pathways
Enzyme names commonly: |
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Term
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Definition
Series of enzyme-controlled reactions leading to formation of a product
Each new substrate is the product of the previous reaction |
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Term
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Definition
1. Reflect the substrate
2. Have the suffix – ase
3. Examples: sucrase, lactase, protease, lipase |
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Term
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Definition
A. Cofactors
B. Coenzymes |
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Term
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Definition
1. Make some enzymes active
2. Non-protein component
3. Ions or coenzymes |
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Term
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Definition
1. Organic molecules that act as cofactors
2. Vitamins |
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Term
| Factors That Alter Enzymes |
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Definition
1. Heat
2. Radiation
3. Electricity
4. Chemicals
5. Changes in pH |
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Term
| Regulation of Metabolic Pathways |
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Definition
A. Limited number of regulatory enzymes
B. Negative feedback |
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Term
| 4.4: Energy for Metabolic Reactions |
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Definition
Energy is the capacity to change something; it is the ability to do work
Common forms of energy:
ATP Molecules
Release of Chemical Energy |
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Term
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Definition
1. Heat
2. Light
3. Sound
4. Electrical energy
5. Mechanical energy
6. Chemical energy |
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Term
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Definition
A. Each ATP molecule has three parts:
B. Third phosphate attached by high-energy bond
C. When the bond is broken, energy is transferred
D. When the bond is broken, ATP becomes ADP
E. ADP becomes ATP through phosphorylation
F. Phosphorylation requires energy release from cellular respiration |
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Term
| A. Each ATP molecule has three parts: |
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Definition
1. An adenine molecule
2. A ribose molecule
3. Three phosphate molecules in a chain |
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Term
| Release of Chemical Energy |
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Definition
A. Chemical bonds are broken to release energy
B. We burn glucose in a process called oxidation |
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Term
| 4.5: Cellular Respiration |
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Definition
A. Occurs in a series of reactions:
B. Produces:
C. Includes: |
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Term
| A. Occurs in a series of reactions: |
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Definition
1. Glycolysis
2. Citric acid cycle (aka TCA or Kreb’s Cycle)
3. Electron transport system |
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Term
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Definition
1. Carbon dioxide
2. Water
3. ATP (chemical energy)
4. Heat |
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Term
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Definition
1. Anaerobic reactions (without O2) - produce little ATP
2. Aerobic reactions (requires O2) - produce most ATP |
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Term
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Definition
A. Series of ten reactions
B. Breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvic acid molecules
C. Occurs in cytosol
D. Anaerobic phase of cellular respiration
E. Yields two ATP molecules per glucose molecule
F. Summarized by three main phases or events: |
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Term
| F. Summarized by three main phases or events: |
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Definition
1. Phosphorylation
2. Splitting
3. Production of NADH and ATP |
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Term
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Definition
A. Anaerobic Reactions
B. Aerobic Reactions |
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Term
| Glycolysis - Anaerobic Reactions |
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Definition
A. Event 1 - Phosphorylation
B. Event 2 – Splitting (cleavage)
C. Event 3 – Production of NADH and ATP
D. If oxygen is not available: |
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Term
| A. Event 1 - Phosphorylation |
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Definition
1. Two phosphates added to glucose
2. Requires ATP |
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Term
| B. Event 2 – Splitting (cleavage) |
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Definition
| 1. 6-carbon glucose split into two 3-carbon molecules |
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Term
| C. Event 3 – Production of NADH and ATP |
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Definition
1. Hydrogen atoms are released
2. Hydrogen atoms bind to NAD+ to produce NADH
3. NADH delivers hydrogen atoms to electron transport system if oxygen is available
4. ADP is phosphorylated to become ATP
5. Two molecules of pyruvic acid are produced
6. Two molecules of ATP are generated |
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Term
| D. If oxygen is not available: |
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Definition
1. Electron transport system cannot accept new electrons from NADH
2. Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
3. Glycolysis is inhibited
4. ATP production is less than in aerobic reactions |
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Term
| Glycolysis - Aerobic Reactions (If oxygen is available) |
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Definition
1. Pyruvic acid is used to produce acetyl CoA
2. Citric acid cycle begins
3. Electron transport system functions
4. Carbon dioxide and water are formed
5. 34 molecules of ATP are produced per each glucose molecule |
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Term
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Definition
A. Begins when acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid to produce citric acid
B. Citric acid is changed into oxaloacetic acid through a series of reactions
C. Cycle repeats as long as pyruvic acid and oxygen are available
D. For each citric acid molecule:
1. One ATP is produced
2. Eight hydrogen atoms are transferred to NAD+ and FAD
3. Two CO2 produced |
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Term
| Electron Transport System |
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Definition
A. NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to the ETS
B. ETS is a series of electron carriers located in cristae of mitochondria
C. Energy from electrons transferred to ATP synthase
D. ATP synthase catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
E. Water is formed |
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Term
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Definition
A. Carbohydrate molecules from foods can enter:
B. Excess glucose stored as: |
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Term
| A. Carbohydrate molecules from foods can enter: |
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Definition
1. Catabolic pathways for energy production
2. Anabolic pathways for storage |
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Term
| B. Excess glucose stored as: |
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Definition
1. Glycogen (primarily by liver and muscle cells)
2. Fat
3. Converted to amino acids |
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Term
| 4.6: Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis |
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Definition
Instruction of cells to synthesize proteins comes from a nucleic acid, DNA
Genetic Information
Structure of DNA
DNA Replication
Genetic Code
RNA Molecules
Protein Synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
A. Genetic information – instructs cells how to construct proteins; stored in
B. Gene – segment of DNA that codes for one protein
C. Genome – complete set of genes
D. Genetic Code – method used to translate a sequence of nucleotides of DNA |
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Term
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Definition
A. Two polynucleotide chains (antiparallel)
B. Hydrogen bonds hold nitrogenous bases together
C. Bases pair specifically (A-T and C-G)
D. Forms a helix
E. DNA wrapped about histones forms chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
A. Hydrogen bonds break between bases
B. Double strands unwind and pull apart
C. New nucleotides pair with exposed bases
D. Controlled by DNA polymerase |
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Term
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Definition
A. Specification of the correct sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
B. Each amino acid is represented by a triplet code |
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Term
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Definition
A. Messenger RNA (mRNA):
B. Transfer RNA (tRNA):
C. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): |
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Term
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Definition
Making of mRNA (copying of DNA) is transcription
Delivers genetic information from nucleus to the cytoplasm
Single polynucleotide chain
Formed beside a strand of DNA
RNA nucleotides are complementary to DNA nucleotides (exception – no thymine in RNA; replaced with uracil) |
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Term
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Definition
1. Carries amino acids to mRNA
2. Carries anticodon to mRNA
3. Translates a codon of mRNA into an amino acid |
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Term
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Definition
| 1. Provides structure and enzyme activity for ribosomes |
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Term
| 4.7: Changes in Genetic Information |
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Definition
Only about 1/10th of one percent of the human genome differs from person to person
Nature of Mutations
Protection Against Mutation
Inborn Errors of Metabolism |
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Term
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Definition
A. Mutations – change in genetic information
B. Result when:
C. May or may not change the protein |
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Term
| Protection Against Mutation |
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Definition
| A. Repair enzymes correct the mutations |
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Term
| Inborn Errors of Metabolism |
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Definition
A. Occurs from inheriting a mutation that then alters an enzyme
B. This creates a block in an otherwise normal biochemical pathway |
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