Adaption

-heritable trais that allow for survival and reproduction

-results from evolution through natural selection

-adap to get preferred traits and INC fitness

Trade Offs

-inescapable compromises btwn tairs

ex- # eggs and quality (amnt yolk)

--> as quality inc (egg mass INC) # egg DEC but chance of survival also INC

Difference btwn Acclimatization

& adaption

ACCLIMATION

-type of adaption

-changes in phenotype in individual

-in response to short term change in enviro

ADAPTION

-genetic change in population

-in response to natural selection

result of mutant  thats favorable

if mutant occurs & its more efficient

it INC its fitness

w/INC in fitness-INC in ability to reproduce

therefor, more mutant that nonmutant offspring

*allele will INC in frequency*

cells that manufacture/secrete hormones

or digest enzymes

-have many rough ER

and Golgi

cells that store energy

-many fat droplets

cells that ingest/destroy invading bacteria

-many lysosomes

Multicellular

-bodies contain distinct types of cells that are specialized for different function

Tissue

+

the 4 types

-group of similar cells that function as a unit

1- connective

2-nervous

3-muscle

4-epithelial

4 types of connective tissue

1-loose 

2-dense

3-supporting

4-fluid

Connective Tissue

-cells that are loosely arrange in liquid, jelly or solid matrix

-diff tpes secrete diff extracellular matrix therefore diff connective tissues

-secrete distinct type of extracellular matrix

matrix

-extracellular fibers and other materials

-secreted by connective tissues

loose connective tissues

-array of fibrous protein 

-soft matrix

-packing material btwn organs/padding under skin

adipose tissue

-loose connective tissue

-fat tissue

-dominated by fat droplets

-matrix = fibers & fluids

Dense Connective Tisse

-in tendons & ligaments

-connect muscles, bones, & organs

-matrix = tough collagen fibers

supporting connective tissues 

-firm extracellular matrix

bone & cartilage

-->provide structural support & protective enclosures

Fluid Connective Tissue

-consists of cells surrounded by liquid extracellular matrix

ex-blood

-->matrix = plasm

Nervous Tissue

-consists of nerve cells-neruons & supporting cells

-regulate [ ] surrount neurons

-supply nutrients to neurons

-serve as support for neurons

Muscle Tissue

+

3 types

-can have 1 or many nuclei

-function primarily in movement

1-skeletal

2-cardiac

3-smooth

Skeletal muscle

-attached to bones

-responsible for most movement

-oppening of digestive &urinary tracts

-controls swallowing defecation and urination

-tissues contract VOLUNTARILY

-multinucleaste

-unstriated

-have muscle fibers

-contract in response signals from nerve cells

Muscle fibers

-packed w/long tubelike stucutre-myofibrils

-->each packed with protein filaments that move past eachother

myofibrils

-found in muscle fibers

-packed w/protein filaments that move by sliding past eachother

Cardiac Muscle

-walls or heart-responsible for pumping blood

-cells brach and make direct end-to-end physical/electrical contact w/other cardiac muscle cells (so can contract in unison)

-some multinucleated--most uninucleated

-involuntary   &   striated

Smooth Muscle

-lines walls of digestive tract and blood vesels

-peristalsis and dilating arteries

-controls size of airways

-expelling fetus during birth

reason to striated/unstriated

-organization of protein filaments (also responsible for contractions)

-->determine appearance of striated vs nonstriated

Epithelial tissue

 -covers outside of body

-surface of organs

-forms clands

*barrier and protective layer*

apical side- faces toward enviro

basolateral side-faces interior-connects connective tissue

***SHORT LIFESPAN-due to harsh enviro***

organ

-structure that serves a specialized function and consists of several tissues

gland

-created of epithelial tissue

-secrete specific molecules or solutions

-line organ and body (exterior portion)

-regulate transfer heat b/c interior/exterior

-regulate transfer of water/nutriens/other substances

how are epithelial cells stuructures

(organization wise)

-tightly packed

-->by way of tight junctions/desomosomes

basal lamina

layers of fibers in basolateral side

-faces interior of animal

why is SA/V relationship important?

-rate at which nutrients are used and heat and wates products are produced depend on volutme of cell

-as cell size INC, V INC much faster than SA

-diffusion takes place accross plasma membrane sufcace

IN-O2 and nutrients

OUT-urea and CO2

Metabolic Rate

-overall rates of ENERGY consumption

-depends largely on aerobic respiration

-measures in term of O2 consumption

Basal metabolic rate

(BMR)

-the rate @ which animal consumes oxy while at rest-empty stomal- under normal tep/mosture conditions

-small animals >BMR than large animals

Why do small animals have a higher BMR

-as size INC mass specific MBR DEC

(b/c available SA for diffusion of materials wouldnt be able to withstand the volume/keep up w/metabolic demands)

gills

-organs that allow exchange of gases/dissolved substances btwn animal's blood/surrounding water

-responsible for oxy uptake on 1 side of membrane

-skin responsible for other side

-switch from skin diffusion to gill use when V too big for SA

Ways to optimize diffusion

-become shape w/most SA relative to volume

-flattening

-folding

-branching

flattening

-fish gills consist lamallae

= thin sheets of epithelial cells that provide gills w/an HIGH SA relative to volume

Folding

ex-digestive tract

villi- extending from the folds

-narrow projections

Branching

ex- cappilaries- small thin walled blood vessels

Homeostasis

stability in chem and physical condition

2 types of homeostasis

1-Confomation-do not actively regulate body temp to match surround-body temp remain constant b/c conformed to surroundings

2-Regulation-actively adjust internal state to keep w/in limits acceptable-no matter what external conditions

Role of epithelium in homeostasis

-form internal envor that can be dramatically different than external

-maintain physical and chem conditions internally that are relatively constant

2 reasons why homeostasis is important

-most enzymes function best under narrow range of conditions

-temp changes affect permeability

3 general components of homeostatic system

-negative feedback loop

1-sensor

2-integrator

3-effector

sensor

-structure that senses some aspect of the external/internal enviro

integrator

-evaluates incoming sensory info

-decides (UNCONSCIOUSLY) whether response is necessary to achieve homeostasis

effector

-any sturcture that helps restore the desired internal conditions

-based on neg feedback loop

-reduce or oppose change in internal conditions

conduction

direct transfer btwn 2 SOLIDS

btwn 2 phsycial bodies IN CONTACT

rate depends on:

1-SA of transfer

2-steepness of temp difference

3-how well each body conducts heat

Convection

-type of conduction

-heat transfer btwn solid & liquid/gas

-direct contact

radiation

-transfer of heat btwn 2 bodies NOT in contact

evaporation

-leads to heat loss

thermoregulate

-control body temps

-depend on 

1-how animals obtain

2-whether body temp is constant (conformation or regulation homeostasis)

endotherm

-produces adequate heat to warm

its own tissues

Ectotherm

-relies principally on heat gained 

from environment

Homeotherms

-keep body temp constant

heterotherms

-allow body temp to rise or fall depending on environmental homeotherms

torpor

-energy constering physicological state

DEC metabolic rate, body temp and active

lasts for a SHORT time

hibernation

--energy constering physicological state

DEC metabolic rate, body temp and active

-LONG TIME

How do endotherms warm themselves

-due to BMR being HIGH

(can maintain high levels of aerobic activities)

-heat given off by high rate of chem rxn-enought to warm body

-maintin HIGH body temp ALL time

How do ectotherms generat heat?

-generate heat as a by-product of metabolism

-BMR = low therefore get heat through radiation & conduction (get it from environment)

-muscle activity/digest slow dramatically as body temp lower

food intake of endotherms/ectotherms

-endothers food intakes goes toward maintaining energy- need LARGE intake

-ectotherms-SMALL intake to maintain heat and excess energy goes toward supporting reproduction

anterior hypothalamus

-respond to changes in blood time

heat shock protein

-speed the refolding of protein (recovery process)

-if protein denatured due to heat

warm blood vs cold blood

-arteries = warm blood

-oxygenated

-travels out

-veins = cold blood 

-blood towards body core

conntercurrent exchanger

-fluids flowing in adjacent pipes in opposite direction

-efficient b/c MAINTAIN gradient b/twn 2 fluids along entire gradient

multiplier effect

-small differences in heat along lenght of exchanger sum up to create large overall temp gradient from beginner to end