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Definition
-reluctance or refusal to go to school or to remain there, aka school phobia
-5% of kids
-most common between ages 5-7
-consequences: emotional distress, academic difficulty, dropping out, and adjustment problems as an adult |
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| a theory makes clear... (3 things) |
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Definition
| what is most important to study, what can be hypothesized or predicted about it, and how it should be studied |
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| criteria of a good theory |
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| consistent, falsifiable, and supported by data |
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| five key developmental issues people most often disagree about |
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Definition
-goodness-badness of humane nature
-nature-nurture, activity-passivity
-continuity-discontinuity
- universality-context specificity |
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| portrayed children as inherently selfish and bad and it was societys responsibility to teach them to behave in a civilized manner |
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-children are innately good and intuitively understand right and wrong and develop in positive directions as long as society doesnt interfere
-naturalist, active |
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maintained that infants are tabulae rasae (blank slates) waiting to be written on by experiences
-nurture, passive |
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| continuity-discontinuity issue |
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Definition
-focuses on whether the changes people undergo over the life span are gradual or abrupt
-focuses on whether changes are quantitative or qualitative in nature |
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| changes in degree and indicate continuitiy, growing taller, gaining more wrinkles, more vocabulary words |
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| changes in kind and suggest discontinuity: speak vs not speaking toddler, butterfly vs catepillar |
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-a stage is a distinct phase of development characterized by a particular set of abilities, motives, emotions..etc
-proposed by discontinuity theorists |
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| universality-context specificity issue |
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| extent to which developmental changes are common to all humans (stage theorists) or different across cultures, subcultures, task contexts, and individuals (context specific) |
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-focused on the development and dynamics of the personality
-challenged prevailing notions by saying that people are driven by motives and emotional conflicts of which they are unaware and are shaped by earliest experiences in the family
-humans have basic biological urges or drives that must be satisfied
-view newborn as inherently selfish creature driven by instincts
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| inborn biological forces that motivate behavior |
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| begins to emerge during infancy when psychic energy is diverted from id to energize processes such as perception, learning and problem solving |
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| develops from the ego as 3-6 yr old children internalize moral standards of parents |
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| psychic energy of the sex instinct; shifts from one part of body to the other to gratify diff biological needs as child matures |
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| oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital |
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| arrested development in which part of the libido remains tied to an earlier stage of development |
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| may later depend too much on other people and chain smoke |
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| if parents are too impatient may have high levels of anxiety and a personality that resists demands from authority (anal or acting out) |
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3-6, especially treacherous
-develop incestuous desires for their mom or dad |
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| boy loves his mother and is scared his father will retaliate so he identifies with the father |
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| involves taking on or internalizing the attitudes and behaviors of another person |
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| girl has desire for father and envys the fact that he has a penis, views mother as rival and resolves it by identifying w mother |
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| 6-12 yr olds sexual urges are tame and they focus on schoolwork and play |
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| adolescents have difficult accepting their new sexuality, may reexperience conflicting feelings toward parents that they felt during the phallic stage and may distance themselves to |
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| expressing motives that are just the opposite of ones real motives |
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how the ego adopts unconscious coping devices to cope against anxiety
-can allow us to function despite anxiety, but can involve too much distortion from reality and zap energy and do nto resolve underlying psychic conflicts |
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| goal: bring unconscious fantasies, desires and beliefs to the level of consciousness |
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| ambiguous, internally inconsistent, and difficult to test |
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-studied with Anna Freud
-concerned w inner dynamics of personality and proposed that the personality evolves through systematic stages true for everyone; differences in personality are because of experience
vs Freud:
-placed less emphasis on sexual urges and more on social influences such as peers
-placed less emphasis on unconscious, irrational an selfish id and more on rational ego and its adaptive powers
-held a more positive view of human nature: people are active, and can overcome harmful early experiences
-put more emphasis on development after adolescence
SUMMED UP: Erikson shifted Freudian thought upward in consciousness, outward to the social world, and forward throughout the complete life span |
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p 38! Erikson, eight major conflicts during their lives
-trust vs mistrust birth-1
autonomy vs shame and doubt 1-3 yrs
intitiative vs guilt 3-6
industry vs inferiority 6-12
identity vs role confusion 12-20
intimacy vs isolation 20-40 yrs
generativity vs stagnation 40-65
integrity vs despair 65 and on |
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| trusting caregivers to meet their needs |
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| autonomy vs shame and doubt |
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| children learn to assert their will and do things for themselves or they will doubt their abilities |
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| develop initiative by devising and carrying out bold plans but must learn not to impinge on rights of others |
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| children must master important social and academic skills and keep up w peers or else feel inferior |
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| identity vs role confusion |
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| adolescents ask who they are and establish social identities or else confused about the roles they should play as adult |
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| young adults seek to form a shared identity w another person but may fear intimacy and experience loneliness and isolation |
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| generativity vs stagnation |
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| middle aged adults must feel they are producing something that will outlive them either as parents or as workers or else they will be stagnant and self centered |
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| must come to view w their lives as meaningful to face death wout worries and regrets |
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| captures central developmental issues in eight stages |
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| vague, difficult to test, describes but does not explain, |
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-nurture is everything
-coined behaviorism
-rejected psychoanalytic theory
-children have no innate tendencies
-used classical conditioning to make his point (little Albert and white rat): proved emotional responses can be learned |
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| -conclusions about human development and functioning should be based on observations of overt behavior rather than on speculations about unobservable cognitive and emotional processes |
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discovered classical conditioning
-dog experiment |
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| reject developmental stages that Freud and other stage theorists supported |
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-coined operant conditioning
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| learners behavior becomes either more or less probable depending on the consequences it produces |
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positive: good
reinforcement: strengthens behavior |
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-behavior is strengthened because something undesirable is taken away
-many bad habits are formed this way |
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| -an unpleasant stimulus is added to decrease a behavior |
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| when a behavior goes away because it is ignored |
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| spanking is effective when: |
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Definition
is is consistent, not overly harsh, immediate, accompanied with explanations, and combined w efforts to reinforce desirable behavior
-can result in lower more aggression and lower mental development
-negative effects especially noticeable when they are older than 6 |
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| too little emphasis on the role of cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and reflection in learning |
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-coined social cognitive theory (or social learning theory)
-claims that humans are cognitive being whose active processing of info plays a critical role in their learning, behavior, and development
-highlighted observational learning as important--more cognitive than conditioned
-experiment w Bobo and violence--observational learning
-people do not passively learn but rather actively learn
-concentrated on human agency |
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| Bandura and operant conditioning/Skinner |
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Definition
| it is an important type of learning but people think about the consequences likely to follow from their behavior and are more affected by what they believe will happen than what they actually encounter |
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| a process in which learning occurs but is not evident in behavior (not imitated) |
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| process in which learners become more or less likely to perform a behavior based on whether consequences experienced by the model they observe are reinforcing or punishing |
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ways in which people deliberately exercise cognitive control over themselves, their environments, and their lives
-bandura |
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Definition
the belief that one can effectively produce desired outcomes in that area
-bandura, human agency |
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| humans develop through a continuous interaction among the person, his or her behavior and their environment |
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| -like watson and skinner doubts there are stages |
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| strengths of learning principles |
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Definition
-operate across any lifespan
-can be used to understand behavior at any age
-can optimize development and treat developmental problems
-precise and testable |
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Term
| weaknesses of learning theories |
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Definition
-babies can only babble at a certain point in development no matter how much you try to "teach" it to babble earlier
-rarely demonstrate that learning is responsible for commonly observed developmental changes--only that it MIGHT
-too little emphasis on biological processes |
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Definition
-after behavioral learning theories
-saw intelligence as a process that helps an organism adapt to its environment
-coined constructivism: believes the interaction between biological maturation and experience is responsible for progress from one stage of cognitive development to another
-four periods of cognitive development |
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Term
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Definition
Piaget
-children actively construct new understandings of the world based on their experiences |
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Term
| four periods of cognitive develpoment: Piaget |
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Definition
-at each stage child acts in a qualitatively diff ways
-sensorimotor stage birth-2
-preoperational stage 2-7
-concrete operations stage 11-12
-formal operations stage 12-older |
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Definition
-infants use senses and motor actions to explore and understand world
-over time acquire tools for solving problems through their sensory and motor experiences |
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-has capacity for symbolic thought but not yet capable of logical problem solving
-egocentric and easily fooled by perceptions
-fail to demonstrate conservation |
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| the recognition that certain properties of an object or substance do not change when its appearance is altered in some superficial way |
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| concrete operations stage |
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have concrete logical operations that allow them to mentally classify, add and act on concrete objects in heads
-can solve practical real world problems through trial and error approach but not abstract ideas |
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-can think about abstract ideas and trace long range consequences of possible actions
-w experience can form hypotheses and test them using the scientific method |
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-dominated study of child development til the 1980's
-influenced education and child rearing to pitch education at children levels of understanding and stimulate children to discover new concepts through their own experience |
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Definition
-said too little about influences of motivation and emotion on thought processes
-question whether his stages really are coherent and general modes of thinking that can be applied to a variety of types of problems
-underestimated the cognitive abilities of young children
-not enough emphasis on parents role in cognitive development
-not consistent across cultures |
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| sociocultural perspective |
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Definition
-coined by Lev Vygotsky (contemporary of Piaget)
-disagreed w Piaget that there are universal stages
-maintained that cognitive development is shaped by the sociocultural context in which it occurs |
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| informational processing approach |
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Definition
-became dominant in 1980's
-discussed more in chapter 8 |
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| Systems theories of development |
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Definition
emphasize interactions between humans and the contexts in which they develop
-changes over the life span develop b/c of interactions b/w changing organism and changing environment
-complex interplay of influences
-parents view themselves as influences children as much as their children influence them |
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Definition
-started w interest in environment and initially emphasized biological influences
-studied how products of evolution such as genes and hormones interact w environmental factors to guide the individuals development |
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| the study of the evolved behavior of various species in their natural environments |
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| epigenetic psychobiological systems perspective |
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Definition
-Gottlieb
development is the product of interacting biological and environmental forces that form a larger system
-evolution has endowed in us a human genetic makeup (we are somewhat predisposed for certain things)
-each persons development takes place in the context of our evolutionary history as a species
-genes do not dictate, they participate |
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Definition
nature and nurture co-act to bring forth particular developmental outcomes
1) the activity of genes that turn on and off at certain points in life
2) the activity of neurons
3) the organisms behavior
4) environmental influences of all kinds |
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| weaknesses of systems theory |
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Definition
-no clear picture of human development
-only partially formulated and tested
-how can we ever make generalizations |
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Definition
Erikson, Freud, Piaget
-development is guided by certain universal biological maturational forces
-parents would trust childrens biologically based tendencies to seek the learning opportunities they need |
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Watson, Skinner, and Bandura
-emphasize role of environment
-want to guide learning |
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| rely of many theories and recognize that no major theory is right |
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