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Chapter 2
Alcamo's Microbiology
99
Microbiology
Undergraduate 1
09/19/2010

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Term
Biosphere
Definition
that part of the earth- including the air, soil, and water- where life occurs
Term
Cellular Chemistry
Definition
the chemical reactions between atoms and molecules that provide for the unique metabolism found in microbial cells
Term
Matter
Definition
Anything that occupies space and has a mass
Term
Chemical Element
Definition
the most basic forms of matter and they cannot be broken down into other substances by ordinary chemical means
-6 of the most important elements to humans: 1. Carbon 2. Hydrogen 3. Nitrogen 4. Phosphorus 5. Sulfur 6. Oxygen CHNOPS
-other important elements include: Sodium, Calcium, manganese, iron, copper, zinc
Term
Atom
Definition
the smallest unit of an element having the properties of that element, it cannot be broken down further without losing the quality of the element
Term
Atomic Nucleus
Definition
an atom consists of a positively charged core, which contains most of its mass and two kinds of particles neutrons and protons
Term
Mass
Definition
The quantity of matter in a sample
Term
Proton
Definition
positively charged particles
Term
Neutron
Definition
neutral particles
Term
Atomic Number
Definition
the number of protons in the atom
Term
Mass Number
Definition
the number of protons and neutrons combined
Term
Electrons
Definition
in a cloud surrounding the atomic nucleus, negatively charged, the number is equal to the amount of protons
Term
Electron Shell
Definition
spaces where electrons are located and where each shell represents a different energy level
Term
Isotopes
Definition
Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons
Term
Radioisotope
Definition
unstable isotopes that give off energy in the form of radiation and are useful in research and medicine
Term
ion
Definition
an atom that has acquired electrostatic charge
Term
Anion
Definition
a negatively charged ion
Term
Cation
Definition
a positively charged ion
Term
Electron Placement in Electron Shell
Definition
the shell closest to the nucleus can accommodate two electrons, while the second and third shells each can hold 8, other shells have a max numbers but usually no more than 18 are presented in those outer shells
Term
Chemical Bond
Definition
the force holding two or more atoms that are linked together
-they can interact electrostatically or uncharged atoms can share electron with one or more other atoms
Term
Ionic Bond
Definition
one atoms gives up its outermost electrons to another
Term
Salts
Definition
- typically formed through ionic bonding
Including: calcium (Ca+2) potassium (K+2) Magnesium (Mg+2) iron (Fe+2 or Fe+3)
Term
Compound
Definition
when two or more different elements interact with one another to achieve stability, each has its own formula and set of properties
Term
Covalent Bonds
Definition
a bond where electron achieve stability by sharing electrons between atoms (CHNOPS elements)
Term
Structural Formula
Definition
chemical diagrams showing the order and arrangement of atoms
Term
Molecule
Definition
two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
Term
Molecular Formula
Definition
the kinds and amounts of atoms (the subscript) in a molecule
Term
Hydrocarbons
Definition
molecules consisting solely of hydrogen and carbon (ie: methane)
Term
Nonpolar Molecules
Definition
the “equal sharing” of electron pairs, there are no electrical charges (poles) and the bonds are called nonpolar covalent bonds
Term
Polar Molecules
Definition
electrically charged poles (ie: water)
Term
Hydrogen Bonds
Definition
involves the attraction of a partially positive hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to one polar molecule toward another polar molecule having either a partially negative oxygen atom or nitrogen atom, weaker than covalent bonds, but they hold water molecules together
Term
Chemical Reaction
Definition
a process in which atoms or molecules interact to form new bonds
Term
Dehydration Synthesis (Condensation) Reaction
Definition
a process of bonding two molecules together by removing the products of water and joining the open bonds
Term
Hydrolysis Reaction
Definition
A process in which a molecule is split into two parts through the interaction of H+ and (OH-) of a water molecule
Term
Solvent
Definition
the liquid doing the dissolving to form a solution
Term
Solute
Definition
the substance dissolved in the solvent
Term
Hydrophilic
Definition
referring to a substance that dissolves in or mixes easily with water
Term
Hydrophobic
Definition
referring to a substance that does not dissolve in or mix easily with water
Term
Aqueous Solution
Definition
one or more substance dissolved in water
Term
Acid
Definition
a chemical substance that donates H+ to a solution, they have a sour taste (ie: acetic acid in vinegar, citric acid in citrus fruits, and lactic acid in sour milk products) (ie: strong acids: hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4) nitric acid (HNO3)) Weak acids- carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Term
Base
Definition
a substance that combines with H+ in solution, they have a bitter taste (strong base = Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)
Term
pH
Definition
the power of hydrogen ions
Term
pH scale
Definition
numerical scale extends from 0 (extremely acidic, high H+) to 14 (extremely basic and alkaline, low H+) and is based on actual calculations of the number of hydrogen ions present when a substance mixes with water; it is logarithimic; that means every time the pH changes by one unit, the [H+] changes 10 times
Term
Neutral
Definition
a substance having a pH of 7 like pure water
Term
Acidic
Definition
solutions that releases H+ and have a pH lower than 7
Term
Basic
Definition
solutions that lose H+ and have a pH greater than 7
Term
Daltons
Definition
units to measure the weight of atomic particles or molecules; equivalent to atomic mass units used in chemistry (one-twelfth the weight of an atom of 12C)
Term
Buffers
Definition
substances that maintain a specific pH, does not necessarily maintain a neutral pH, but rather whatever pH is required for that environment, most biological buffers consist of a weak acid and a weak base
Term
Organic Compound
Definition
- compounds related to or having a carbon basis: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Term
Polymer
Definition
a substance formed by combining smaller molecules into larger ones
Term
Monomers
Definition
-a simple organic molecule that can join in long chains with other molecules to form a more complex molecule
Term
Functional Groups
Definition
points where further chemical reactions can occur if facilitated by a specific enzyme because these reactions will not occur spontaneously
Term
Enzyme
Definition
a protein that facilitates a specific chemical reaction
Term
Carbohydrates
Definition
organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms that build sugars and starches; the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is always 2:1
Term
Monosaccharide
Definition
simple sugars (ie: glucose), building blocks for polysaccharides
Term
Photosynthesis
Definition
A biochemical process in which light energy is converted to chemical energy, which is then used for carbohydrate synthesis
Term
Disaccharides
Definition
composed of two monosaccharides held together by a covalent bond (ie: Sucrose (table sugar) which is constructed from a glucose and fructose molecule through dehydration synthesis reaction, Maltose- composed of two glucose monomers, occurs in barley, and fermented by yeasts, which can produce beer, Lactose (milk sugar) composed of monosaccharides glucose and galactose
Term
Polysaccharides
Definition
complex carbohydrates formed by joining together hundreds of thousands of simple monomers, covalent bonds link them together (ie: starch and glycogen, cellulose)
Term
Lipids
Definition
nonpolar organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, (ie: triglycerides, phospholipids); hydrophobic
-consist of a 3-carbon glycerol molecule and up to 3 long-chain fatty acids, each fatty acid is a long nonpolar hydrocarbon chain containing b/w 16-18 carbon atoms, bonding occurs through dehydration synthesis reaction between hydroxyl and carboxyl functional groups
Term
Saturated
Definition
referring to a water-insoluble compound that cannot incorporate any additional hydrogen atoms
Term
Unsaturated
Definition
Referring to a water-soluble compound that can incorporate additional hydrogen atoms
Term
Phospholipids
Definition
A water-insoluble compound containing glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate head group, forms part of the membrane in all cells
Term
Sterols
Definition
An organic solid containing several carbon rings with side chains (ie: Cholesterol)
Term
Nucleic Acids
Definition
a high-molecular-weight molecule consisting of nucleotide chains that convey genetic information and are found in all living cells and viruses
Term
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Definition
the genetic material of all cells and many viruses
Term
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Definition
the nucleic acid involved in protein synthesis and gene control, also the genetic information in some viruses
Term
Nucleotides
Definition
a component of a nucleic acid consisting of a carbohydrate molecule, a phosphate group, and nitrogenous base
Term
nitrogenous bases
Definition
any of five nitrogen-containing compounds found in nucleic acids, including adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil
Term
RNA nitrogenous bases
Definition
adenine, guanine, and cytosine are present but uracil (U) replaces thymine (T)
Term
DNA nitrogenous bases
Definition
purine bases are Adenine (A) and guanine (G), while pyramidine bases are cytosine (C) and thymine (T);
Term
Polynucleotide
Definition
a chain of linked nucleotides
Term
James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins
Definition
1953 published papers describing how a complete DNA molecule consists of 2 polynucleotide strands opposed to each other in a ladder-like arrangement
-Guanine and Cytosine line up opposite one another, and thymine and adenine opposite each other, they are held together by hydrogen bonds,
Term
DNA Double Helix
Definition
the structure of DNA, in which two complementary strands are connected by hydrogen bonds b/w complementary nitrogenous bases and wound in opposing spirals
Term
Genes
Definition
a segment of a DNA molecule that provides the biochemical information for a polypeptide or for a functioning RNA molecule
Term
Chromosomes
Definition
A DNA molecule containing the hereditary information in the form of genes
Term
RNA
Definition
single stranded polynucleotides, intermediaries, involved in carrying gene information or as structural molecules needed to construct proteins
-in viruses, it is the genetic information playing roles in regulating gene activity,
Term
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Definition
a molecule in cells that provides most of the energy for metabolism
Term
Proteins
Definition
a chain or chains of linked amino acids used as a structural material or enzyme in living cells
Term
Amino Acids
Definition
an organic acid containing one or more amino groups; the monomers that build proteins in all living cells
-center of each is a carbon atom attached to 2 functional groups: an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH) and is linked to them by dehydration synthesis reactions
Term
R Group
Definition
the side chain on an amino acid that helps determine the final shape and function of a protein
Term
Polypeptide
Definition
a chain of linked amino acids
Term
Peptide Bond
Definition
A linkage between the amino group on one amino acids and the carboxyl group on another amino acids
Term
Nitrogen Fixation
Definition
the chemical process by which microorganisms convert nitrogen gas (N2) to nitrogen-containing substances in soil and living organisms, then reconverted to the gas
Term
Primary Structure
Definition
the sequence of amino acids is in a polypeptide
Term
Alpha Helix
Definition
the spiral structure of a polypeptide consisting of amino acids stabilized by hydrogen bonds
Term
Secondary Structure
Definition
the region of a polypeptide folded into an alpha helix or pleated sheet
Term
Pleated Sheet
Definition
the zig-zag secondary structure of a polypeptide in a flat plane
Term
Tertiary Structure
Definition
the folding of a polypeptide back on itself
Term
Disulfid Bridges
Definition
A covalent bond b/w sulfur-containing R groups in amino acids
Term
Denaturation
Definition
a process caused by heat or pH in which proteins lose their function due to changes in their 3D structure
Term
Quaternary Structure
Definition
the association of two or more polypeptides in a protein
Term
Atoms
Definition
made of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by a negatively charged cloud of electrons
Term
Hydrogen Bonding
Definition
the electrostatic attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to a partially negatively polar molecule
Term
Hydroxyl
Definition
-OH

-O-H
Term
Carboxyl
Definition
-COOH
O
ll
-C-OH
Term
Carbonyl
Definition
-CO-

O
ll
-C-
Term
Amino
Definition
-NH2

H
l
-N-H
Term
Sulfhydryl
Definition
-SH


-S-H
Term
Phosphate
Definition
-H2PO4

OH
l
-O-P=O
l
OH
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