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Chapter 18 - Gas Exchange in the Lungs and Tissues
Chapter 18 - Gas Exchange in the Lungs and Tissues Notecards
124
Physiology
Undergraduate 3
12/14/2012
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Term
If the diffusion of gases between alveoli and blood is significantly impaired, or if oxygen transport in the blood is inadequate, __________ (a state of too little oxygen) results.
 Definition
1) Hypoxia
Term
__________ is a state of too little oxygen.
 Definition
1) Hypoxia
Term
Hypoxia frequently goes hand-and-hand with __________, elevated concentrations of carbon dioxide.
 Definition
1) Hypercapnia
Term
What are the three variables sensors within the body use to monitor arterial blood composition?
 Definition
1) Oxygen
2) Carbon dioxide
3) pH
Term
Arterial oxygen delivery to the cells must be adequate to support __________ __________ and __________ __________.
 Definition
1) Aerobic respiration
2) ATP production
Term
Carbon dioxide is a waste produced during the __________ __________ __________. What are two reasons that make its excretion necessary?
 Definition
1) Citric acid cycle
2) High levels of CO2 are a CNS depressant
3) Elevated CO2 causes a state of acidosis (low pH)
Term
Maintaining pH homeostasis is critical to prevent the denaturation of __________.
 Definition
1) Proteins
Term
What are the six steps that take place during pulmonary gas exchange and transport?
 Definition
1) Oxygen enters the blood at alveolar-capillary interface
2) Oxygen is transported in blood dissolved in plasma or bound to hemoglobin inside RBCs
3) Oxygen diffuses into cells
4) CO2 diffuses out of cells
5) CO2 is transported, dissolved, bound to hemoglobin, or as HCO3-
6) CO2 enters alveoli at alveolar-capillary interface
Term
Once air reaches the __________, individual gases such as O2 and CO2 diffuse from the alveolar air space into the __________.
 Definition
1) Alveoli
2) Blood
Term
__________ __________ is a low arterial pressure of oxygen which may be caused by high altitude; alveolar hypoventilation; a decreased lung diffusion capacity; or an abnormal ventilaiton-perfusion ratio.
 Definition
1) Hypoxic hypoxia
Term
__________ __________ is a decreased total amount of O2 bound to hemoglobin and may occur due to blood loss; anemia; or carbon monoxide poisoning.
 Definition
1) Anemic hypoxia
Term
__________ __________ is reduced blood flow that may occur due to heart failure; shock; or thrombosis.
 Definition
1) Ischemic hypoxia
Term
__________ __________ is the failure of cells to use O2 because cells have been poisoned; this only occurs through metabolic poisoning.
 Definition
1) Histotoxic hypoxia
Term
__________ __________ is whole-body hypoxia; __________ is peripheral hypoxia; and __________ is hypoxia in a single organ.
 Definition
1) Heart failure
2) Shock
3) Thrombosis
Term
Normal arterial blood pressure for the partial pressure of oxygen is __________-__________ mmHg; for venous blood pressure it is __________ mmHg.
 Definition
1) 85-100
2) 40
Term
Normal arterial blood for the partial pressure of oxygen is __________-__________ mmHg; for venous blood pressure it is __________ mmHg.
 Definition
1) 40
2) 46
Term
When arterial blood reaches tissue __________, the gradient is __________.
 Definition
1) Capillaries
2) Reversed
Term
Cells continuously use oxygen for __________ __________.
 Definition
1) Oxidative phosphorylation
Term
What three factors influence the efficiency of alveolar gas exchange and determine whether arterial blood gases are normal?
 Definition
1) Adequate oxygen must reach the alveoli; a decrease in alveolar PO2 means that less oxygen is available to enter the blood
2) Issues with the transfer of gases between the alveoli and pulmonary capillaries
3) Blood flow of the alveoli must be adequate
Term
Another term for blood flow is __________.
 Definition
1) Perfusion
Term
What are the two possible causes for low alveolar PO2?
 Definition
1) The inspired air has low oxygen content
2) Alveolar ventilation is inadequate
Term
The main factor that affects atmospheric oxygen content is __________.
 Definition
1) Altitude
Term
The partial pressure of oxygen in the air __________ as you move from sea level to higher altitudes.
 Definition
1) Decreases
Term
If the composition of inspired air is normal by alveolar PO2 is low, then the problem lies with __________ __________.
 Definition
1) Alveolar ventilation
Term
Low alveolar ventilation is known as __________ and is characterized by lower-than-normal volumes of fresh air entering the __________.
 Definition
1) Hypoventilation
2) Alveoli
Term
What are the symptoms of hypoventilation?
 Definition
1) Decreased lung compliance
2) Increased airway resistance
3) CNS depression that slows ventilation and decreases depth
Term
O2 reaching the alveoli is influenced by what two factors?
 Definition
1) Composition of inspired air
2) Alveolar ventilation
Term
Alveolar ventilation is influenced by what two factors?
 Definition
1) Rate and depth of breathing
2) Airway resistance
3) Lung compliance
Term
Gas diffusion between alveoli and the blood is influenced by what two factors?
 Definition
1) Surface area
2) Diffusion distance
Term
Diffusion distances of gas between alveoli and the blood is influenced by what two factors?
 Definition
1) Barrier thickness
2) Amount of fluid
Term
Alveolar gas exchange is influenced by what three factors?
 Definition
1) O2 reaching the alveoli
2) Gas diffusion between alveoli and blood
3) Adequate perfusion of alveoli
Term
During __________ the destruction of alveoli means there is less surface area for gas exchange.
 Definition
1) Emphysema
Term
During __________ __________ __________ thickened alveolar membranes slow gas exchange and a loss of lung compliance may decrease alveolar ventilation.
 Definition
1) Fibrotic lung disease
Term
During __________ __________ fluid in interstitial spaces increase diffusion distance. Arterial PCO2 may be normal due to higher CO2 solubility in water.
 Definition
1) Pulmonary edema
Term
__________ occurs due to increased airway resistance which decreases alveolar ventilation.
 Definition
1) Asthma
Term
The transfer of oxygen from alveoli to blood requires diffusion across the barrier created by __________ __________ __________ __________ and the __________ __________.
 Definition
1) Type I alveolar cells
2) Capillary endothelium
Term
__________ is most rapid over short distances.
 Definition
1) Diffusion
Term
What three pathological changes adversely affect gas exchange?
 Definition
1) A decrease in the amount of alveolar surface area available for gas exchange
2) An increase in the thickness of the alveolar-capillary exchange barrier
3) An increase in the diffusion distance between the alveolar air space and the blood
Term
Physical loss of __________ surface area can have devastating effects in __________, a degenerative lung disease most often caused by cigarette smoking.
The irritating effect of smoke chemicals and tar in the alveoli activates alveolar __________ which releases __________ and other proteolytic enzymes that destroy the elastic fibers of the lung and induce apoptosis of cells.
 Definition
1) Alveolar
2) Emphysema
3) Macrophages
4) Elastase
Term
In __________ __________ __________, scar tissues thickens the __________ __________, making diffusion of gases through the scar tissues much slower than normal.
 Definition
1) Fibrotic lung disease
2) Alveolar wall
Term
In certain pathological states, excess fluid increases the diffusion distance between the __________ air space and the __________.
 Definition
1) Alveolar
2) Blood
Term
In __________ __________, accumulation of interstitial fluid increases the diffusion distance and slows gas exchange.
Normally, only small amounts of interstitial fluid are present in the lungs, the result of low __________ __________ __________ and effective __________ drainage.
 Definition
1) Pulmonary edema
2) Pulmonary blood pressure
3) Lymph
Term
When capillary __________ __________ increases, more fluid filters out of the capillary.
If filtration increases too much, the __________ are unable to remove all the fluid, and excess accumulates in the __________ __________ __________, creating pulmonary edema.
In severe cases, if edema exceeds the tissue's ability to retain it, fluid leads from the interstitial space into the __________ air space, flooding alveoli.
 Definition
1) Hydrostatic pressure
2) Lymphatics
3) Pulmonary interstitial space
4) Alveolar
Term
If hypoxia due to alveolar fluid accumulation is severe and cannot be corrected by oxygen therapy, the condition may be called __________ __________ __________ __________.
 Definition
1) Adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
Term
A final factor that can affect gas exchange in the alveoli is the __________ of the gas.
 Definition
1) Solubility
Term
The movement of gas molecule from air into a liquid is directly proportional to what three factors?
 Definition
1) Pressure gradient of gas
2) Solubility of gas in liquid
3) Temperature
Term
The concentration of dissolved oxygen also depends on the __________ of oxygen in water.
 Definition
1) Solubility
Term
The ease with which a gas dissolved in a liquid is the __________ of the gas in that liquid.
 Definition
1) Solubility
Term
If a gas is very soluble, __________ numbers of gas molecules go into solution at a __________ gas partial pressure; if a gas is less soluble, even a __________ gas partial pressure will cause only a __________ number of gas molecules to dissolve in the liquid.
 Definition
1) Large
2) Low
3) High
4) Small
Term
Oxygen's low solubility in aqueous solutions means that little oxygen can be carried dissolved in __________.
Oxygen's low solubility also means oxygen is __________ to cross the increased diffusion distance present in pulmonary edema. Diffusion of oxygen into alveolar capillaries does not have time to come to __________ before the blood has left the capillaries, resulting in decreased __________ __________ even though __________ __________ may be normal.
 Definition
1) Plasma
2) Slower
3) Equilibrium
4) Arterial PO2
5) Alveolar PO2
Term
When temperature remains constant, the amount of gas that dissolves in a liquid depends on both the __________ of the gas and the liquid and the __________ __________ of the gas.
 Definition
1) Solubility
2) Partial pressure
Term
Gases that enter the capillaries first dissolve in the __________.
 Definition
1) Plasma
Term
Red blood cells (___________) have a critical role in ensuring that gas transport between lung and cells is adequate to meet cell needs; without __________ in the red blood cells the blood would be unable to transport sufficient oxygen to sustain life.
 Definition
1) Erythrocytes
2) Hemoglobin
Term
__________ __________ is defined as the amount of x moving per minute, where it is equivalent to concentration X volume flow.
 Definition
1) Mass flow
Term
More than __________ of the oxygen in blood is bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells, and less than __________ is dissolved in plasma.
 Definition
1) 98%
2) 2%
Term
__________ __________ states that cellular oxygen consumption (QO2) is equivalent to the cardiac output x (arterial O2 content - venous O2 content).
 Definition
1) Fick's equation
Term
Total oxygen content in the blood is composed of that oxygen dissolved in the __________ and that bound to __________.
 Definition
1) Plasma
2) Hemoglobin
Term
Hemoglobin is an effective oxygen carrier due to the four __________ groups centered within the atom; each group can hold __________ oxygen atoms.
 Definition
1) Heme
2) Four
Term
Hemoglobin bound to oxygen is known as __________.
 Definition
1) Oxyhemoglobin
Term
As the concentration of O2 increases, more oxygen binds to __________ and more __________ is produced.
If the concentration of O2 decreases, __________ releases oxygen and the amount of __________ decreases.
 Definition
1) Hemoglobin
2) Oxyhemoglobin
3) Hemoglobin
4) Oxyhemoglobin
Term
In the blood, the free oxygen available to bind to __________ is dissolved oxygen, indicated by the __________ of plasma.
 Definition
1) Hemoglobin
2) PO2
Term
In the __________ __________, oxygen from the alveoli dissolves in plasma.
Dissolved O2 then diffuses into the red blood cells, where it can bind to __________, which then binds as much O2 as possible.
 Definition
1) Pulmonary capillaries
2) Hemoglobin
Term
The __________ of the cells determines how much oxygen is unloaded from hemoglobin. As cells increase their metabolic activity, their __________ decreases and __________ releases more oxygen to them.
 Definition
1) PO2
2) PO2
3) Hemoglobin
Term
The amount of oxygen that binds to hemoglobin depends on what two factors?
 Definition
1) The PO2 in the plasma surrounding the red blood cells
2) The number of potential Hb binding sites available in the red blood cells
Term
Plasma __________ is the primary factor determining what percentage of the available hemoglobin binding sites are occupied by oxygen.
 Definition
1) PO2
Term
Arterial PO2 is established through what three factors?
 Definition
1) The composition of inspired air
2) The alveolar ventilation rate
3) The efficiency of gas exchange from alveoli to blood
Term
The total number of oxygen-binding sites depends on the number of __________ molecules in red blood cells.
 Definition
1) Hemoglobin
Term
The amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin depends on what two factors?
 Definition
1) Plasma O2
2) The amount of hemoglobin
Term
The amount of hemoglobin determines what major factor? How can this factor be calculated?
 Definition
1) Total number of hemoglobin binding sites
2) Hemoglobin content per RBC x number of RBCs
Term
The __________ __________ __________ __________ is calculated by dividing the amount of O2 bound by the maximum that can be bound and multiplying by 100.
 Definition
1) Percent saturation of hemoglobin
Term
As long as PO2 in the alveoli (thus in the __________ __________) stays above __________ mmHG, hemoglobin will remain more than __________ saturated and near-normal levels of O2 transport.
 Definition
1) 60
2) 90%
Term
When metabolically active tissues use additional oxygen, their cellular __________ decreases, and __________ releases additional oxygen at the cells.
 Definition
1) PO2
2) Hemoglobin
Term
Increased temperature, increased PCO2, or decreased pH __________ the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen and shift the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve to the __________.
 Definition
1) Decrease
2) Right
Term
A shift in the hemoglobin saturation curve that results from a change in pH is called the __________ __________. Provide an example?
 Definition
1) Bohr effect
2) When anaerobic metabolism occurs and exercising fibers releases H+ into the cytoplasm and ECF, causing pH to become more acidic.
Term
__________ __________ (extended periods of low oxygen) trigger an increase in 2,3-DPG production in red blood cells.
 Definition
1) Chronic hypoxia
Term
Increased levels of __________-__________ lower the binding affinity of hemoglobin and shift the oxygenated hemoglobin saturation curve to the right.
What are two examples that would cause an increase of this compound to occur?
 Definition
1) 2,3-DPG
2) Ascent to high altitude
3) Anemia
Term
The presence of __________ __________ enhances the ability of fetal hemoglobin to bind oxygen in the low-oxygen environment in the __________.
 Definition
1) Gamma chains
2) Placenta
Term
Total arterial O2 content is determined by what two factors?
 Definition
1) O2 in plasma
2) Oxygen bound to hemoglobin
Term
O2 bound to hemoglobin is determined by what two factors?
 Definition
1) Percent saturation of hemoglobin
2) Total number of binding sites
Term
The saturation of hemoglobin is determined by what four factors?
 Definition
1) PCO2
2) pH
3) Temperature
4) 2,3-DPG
Term
The total number of binding sites on hemoglobin is determined by what equation?
 Definition
1) Hemoglobin content per RBC x Number of RBCs
Term
O2 dissolved in plasma is determined by what four factors?
 Definition
1) Composition of inspired air
2) Alveolar ventilation
3) Oxygen diffusion between alveoli and blood
4) Adequate perfusion of alveoli
Term
Alveolar ventilation is determined by what three factors?
 Definition
1) Rate and depth of breathing
2) Airway resistance
3) Lung compliance
Term
Oxygen diffusion between alveoli and blood is determined by what two factors?
 Definition
1) Surface area
2) Diffusion distance
Term
Diffusion distance of oxygen between alveoli and blood is determined what two factors?
 Definition
1) Membrane thickness
2) Amount of interstitial fluid
Term
CO2 is a by-product of __________ __________.
 Definition
1) Cellular respiration
Term
Why is removing CO2 from the body so important?
 Definition
1) Elevated PCO2 causes a pH disturbance known as acidosis which interferes with H-bonding and denatures proteins
2) Abnormally high CO2 levels depress the CNS and cause confusion, coma, or death
Term
What are the two purposes served by converting CO2 to HCO3-?
 Definition
1) Provides additional means of CO2 transport from cells to lungs
2) HCO3- is available to act as a buffer for metabolic acids (stabilizes pH)
Term
The rapid conversion of CO2 into HCO3- is dependent on __________ __________ an enzyme that is found concentrated in red blood cells and turns CO2 and H2O into __________ and __________.
 Definition
1) Carbonic anhydrase
2) H+
3) HCO3-
Term
What are the eight steps in carbon dioxide transport?
 Definition
1) CO2 diffuses out of cells into system capillaries
2) Only 7% of the CO2 remains dissolved in plasma
3) Nearly 1/4 of the CO2 binds to hemoglobin, forming carbaminohemoglobin
4) 70% of the CO2 load is converted to H+ and HCO3-
5) HCO3- enters plasma in exchange for Cl-
6) At the lungs, dissolved CO2 diffuses out of the plasma
7) According to mass action, CO2 unbinds from hemoglobin and diffuses out of the RBC
8) The carbonic acid reaction reverses, pulling HCO3- back into the RBC and converting it back to CO2
Term
Two separate mechanisms remove free H+ and HCO3-.
First, HCO3- is exchanged for Cl- in a __________ __________, preserving the cell's electrical neutrality and pH.
Second, hemoglobin binds with H+ ions to prevent large changes in the body's __________. However, if blood CO2 is elevated above normal, hemoglobin buffer cannot soak up all the H+ leading to an accumulation in the __________ and a condition known as __________ __________.
 Definition
1) Chloride shift
2) pH
3) Plasma
4) Respiratory acidosis
Term
Although most CO2 that enters RBCs is converted to HCO3-, about __________ in venous blood binds directly to hemoglobin to form __________; the presence of CO2 and H+ facilitates this because both factors decrease hemoglobin's __________ __________ for oxygen.
 Definition
1) 23%
2) Caraminohemoglobin
3) Binding affinity
Term
When venous blood reaches the lungs, the processes that took place in the __________ __________ reverse with the PCO2 of the __________ being lower than that of __________ __________ in the pulmonary capillaries. This causes CO2 to diffuse down its pressure gradient from __________ into the __________, causing the levels of plasma PCo2 to begin to fall.
 Definition
1) Systemic capillaries
2) Alveoli
3) Venous blood
4) Plasma
5) Alveoli
Term
The decrease in __________ CO2 allows dissolved CO2 to diffuse out of the __________ __________ __________.
As CO2 level in the RBCs decrease, the CO2-HCO3- equilibrium is disturbed, shifting toward production of more __________.
Removal of CO2 causes __________ to leave hemoglobin molecules, and the __________ __________ reverses with Cl- returning to the __________ in exchange for HCO3- moving back into __________ __________ __________.
The HCO3- and H+ reform into __________ __________ which is then converted to CO2 and water.
This CO2 is then free to diffuse out of RBCs and into the __________.
 Definition
1) Plasma
2) Red blood cells
3) CO2
4) H+
5) Chloride shift
6) Plasma
7) Red blood cells
8) Carbonic acid
9) Alveoli
Term
Since PO2 is lower in cells than in the arterial blood, O2 diffuses from the __________ the __________.
The decrease in __________ PO2 causes __________ to release O2 making additional oxygen available for the cells.
 Definition
1) Plasma
2) Cells
3) Plasma
4) Hemoglobin
Term
Ventilation pattern depends in large part on the levels of three substances in the arterial blood and ECF. What are the three substances?
 Definition
1) CO2
2) O2
3) H+
Term
The brain stem network that controls breathing behaves like a __________ __________ __________ with intrinsic rhythmic activity that probably arises from __________ __________ with unstable membrane potentials.
 Definition
1) Central pattern generator
2) Pacemaker neurons
Term
What are the four primary steps in the control of ventilation?
 Definition
1) Respiratory neurons in the medulla control inspiratory and expiratory muscles
2) Neurons in the pons integrate sensory information and interact with medullary neurons to influence ventilation
3) The rhythmic pattern of breathing arises from a neural network with spontaneously discharging neurons
4) Ventilation is subject to continuous modulation by various chemoreceptor and mechanoreceptor-linked reflexes and by higher brain centers
Term
Respiratory neurons are concentrated bilaterally in two areas of the __________ __________.
One area called the __________ __________ __________ (NTS) contains the __________ __________ __________ (DRG) of neurons that control mostly muscles of inspiration.
Output from the DRG goes via the __________ __________ to the diaphragm and via the __________ __________ to the intercostal muscles.
In addition the NTS receives sensory information from peripheral chemo and mechanoreceptors through the __________ and __________ __________ (cranial nerves X and IX).
 Definition
1) Medulla oblongata
2) Nucleus tactus solitarius (NTS)
3) Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)
4) Phrenic nerves
5) Intercostal nerves
6) Vagus
7) Glossopharyngeal
Term
Respiratory neurons in the __________ receive sensory information from the DRG and in turn influence the initiation and termination of inspiration.
 Definition
1) Pons
Term
The __________ __________ __________ and other pontine neurons provide tonic input to the medullary networks to help coordinate a smooth respiratory rhythm.
 Definition
1) Pontine respiratory groups
Term
The __________ __________ __________ (VRG) of the medulla has multiple regions with different functions.
One area known as __________-__________ __________ contains spontaneously firing neurons that may act as the basic pacemaker for the respiratory rhythm.
Other area control muscles used for __________ __________ or greater-than-normal inspiration, as during exercise.
 Definition
1) Ventral respiratory group
2) Pre-Botzinger complex
3) Active expiration
Term
Inappropriate relaxation of nerve fibers from the __________ innervate muscles of the larynx, pharynx, and tongue during sleep contribute to __________ __________ __________, a sleeping disorder associated with snoring and excessive daytime sleepiness.
 Definition
1) VRG
2) Obstructive sleep apnea
Term
Neurons of the VRG function primarily during __________ __________, when inspiratory movements are exaggerated, and during __________ __________.
 Definition
1) Forced breathing
2) Active expiration
Term
In forced breathing, increased activity of inspiratory neurons stimulates accessory muscles such as the __________. Contraction of these accessory muscles enhance expansion of the thorax by raising the __________ and __________ __________.
 Definition
1) Sternocleidomastoids
2) Sternum
3) Upper ribs
Term
In active expiration, expiratory neurons from the VRG activate the __________ __________ and __________ muscles.
 Definition
1) Internal intercostals
2) Abdominal
Term
__________ __________ is the primary stimulus for changes in ventilation.
 Definition
1) Carbon dioxide
Term
__________ is the most important extracellular buffer of the body.
 Definition
1) Bicarbonate
Term
__________ __________ in the carotid and aortic arteries sense changes in the PO2, pH, and PCO2 of the plasma.
These __________ and __________ __________ are close to the locations of the baroreceptors involved in the reflex control of blood pressure.
 Definition
1) Peripheral chemoreceptors
2) Carotid
3) Aortic bodies
Term
__________ __________ in the brain respond to changes in the concentration of CO2 in the CSF.
These central receptors lie on the ventral surface of the __________ close to the neurons involved in respiratory control.
 Definition
1) Central chemoreceptors
2) Medulla
Term
When specialized __________ __________ in the carotid and aortic bodies are activated by a decrease in PO2, or pH, or by an increase in PCO2, they trigger a reflex increase in ventilation.
 Definition
1) Glomus cells
Term
Any condition that reduces __________ __________ or increases __________ will activate carotid and aortic glomus cells and increase ventilation.
 Definition
1) Plasma pH
2) PCO2
Term
Since peripheral chemoreceptors respond only to dramatic changes in arterial PO2, __________ __________ concentrations do not play a role in the everyday regulation of ventilation.
 Definition
1) Arterial Oxygen
Term
When arterial PCO2 increases, __________ crosses the blood-brain-barrier and activates the __________ __________.
These receptors signal the control network to increase the rate and depth of ventilation, thereby enhancing __________ __________ and removing __________ from the blood.
 Definition
1) CO2
2) Central chemoreceptors
3) Alveolar ventilation
4) CO2
Term
Central chemoreceptors actually respond to __________ changes in the CSF.
CO2 diffuses across the BBB to the CSF is converted to __________ __________ which dissociated to HCO3- and H+, initiating __________ reflexes.
 Definition
1) pH
2) Carbonic acid
3) Chemoreceptor
Term
pH changes in the __________ do not usually influence the central chemoreceptors directly; this is because although plasma __________ enters the CSF readily the plasma __________ cross the BBB very slowly and therefore have little effect on chemoreceptors.
 Definition
1) Plasma
2) PCO2
3) H+
Term
What are the seven steps in the activation of glomus cells?
 Definition
1) Low PO2
2) K+ channels close
3) Cell depolarizes
4) Ca2+ enters
5) Voltage-gated Ca2+ channel opens
6) Exocytosis of neurotransmitters
7) Signal to medullary centers to increase ventilation
Term
The major protective reflex of the respiratory tract is __________ which is mediated through __________ neurons that innervate bronchiolar __________ muscle.
 Definition
1) Bronchoconstriction
2) Parasympathetic
3) Smooth
Term
Inhaled particles or noxious gases stimulate __________ __________ in the airway mucosa; they then send signals to sensory neurons to integrating centers in the CNS to trigger __________.
 Definition
1) Irritant receptors
2) Bronchoconstriction
Term
Studies on the __________-__________ __________ __________ of infants have shown that the reflex plays a role in limiting ventilation volumes.
 Definition
1) Hering-Breuer inflation reflex
Term
Higher centers in the __________ and __________ can alter the activity of the brain stem control network to change ventilation rate and depth.
__________ control of ventilation fails into this category.
 Definition
1) Hypothalamus
2) Cerebrum
3) Voluntary
Term
True or False: Higher brain center control is a requirement for ventilation.
 Definition
1) False: Higher brain center control is NOT a requirement for ventilation
Term
Respiration can also be affected by stimulation of portions of the __________ system.
 Definition
1) Limbic
Term
Breathing is intimately linked to __________ function; the integrating centers for both functions are located in the __________ __________.
 Definition
1) Cardiovascular
2) Brain stem
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