Term
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Definition
| The achievement view of intelligence is associated with educational attainment—how much knowledge a person has acquired relative to others in their age cohort. |
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| An adaptive problem is anything that impedes survival or reproduction. All adaptations must contribute to fitness during the period of time in which they evolve by helping an organism survive, reproduce, or facilitate the reproductive success of genetic relatives. Adaptations emerge from and interact with recurrent structures of the world in a manner that solves adaptive problems and hence aids in reproductive success. |
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| Murray introduced the notion that there is a real environment (what he called alpha press or objective reality) and a perceived environment (called beta press or reality-as-it-is-perceived). In any situation, what one person "sees" may be different from what another "sees." If two people walk down a street and a third person smiles at each of them, one person might "see" the smile as a sign of friendliness while the other person might "see" the smile as a smirk. Objectively (alpha press), it is the same smile; subjectively (beta press), it may be a different event for the two people. |
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Definition
| | In certain personality instruments, the masculinity dimension contains items reflecting assertiveness, boldness, dominance, self-sufficiency, and instrumentality. The femininity dimension contains items that reflect nurturance, expression of emotions, and empathy. Those persons who scored high on both dimensions are labeled androgynous, to reflect the notion that a single person can possess both masculine and feminine characteristics.
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| Anxiety is an unpleasant, high-arousal emotional state associated with perceived threat. In the psychoanalytic tradition, anxiety is seen as a signal that the control of the ego is being threatened by reality, by impulses from the id, or by harsh controls exerted by the superego. Freud identified three different types of anxiety: neurotic anxiety, moral anxiety, and objective anxiety. According to Rogers, the unpleasant emotional state of anxiety is the result of having an experience that does not fit with one's self-conception. |
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Definition
| The notion that a person's needs influenced how he or she perceives the environment, especially when the environment is ambiguous. The act of interpreting the environment and perceiving the meaning of what is going on in a situation is termed apperception. |
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| The aptitude view of intelligence sees intelligence less as the product of education and more as an ability to become educated, as the ability or aptitude to learn. |
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Definition
At the third level of Maslow's motivation hierarchy are belongingness needs. Humans are a very social species, and most people possess a strong need to belong to groups. Being accepted by others and welcomed into a group represents a somewhat more psychological need than the physiological needs or the need for safety.
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Term
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Definition
| Murray introduced the notion that there is a real environment (what he called alpha press or objective reality) and a perceived environment (called beta press or reality-as-it-is-perceived). In any situation, what one person "sees" may be different from what another "sees." If two people walk down a street and a third person smiles at each of them, one person might "see" the smile as a sign of friendliness while the other person might "see" the smile as a smirk. Objectively (alpha press), it is the same smile; subjectively (beta press), it may be a different event for the two people. |
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Term
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Definition
| Causal attribution refers to a person's explanation of the cause of some event. |
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Term
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Definition
| In Rogers' client-centered therapy, clients are never given interpretations of their problem. Nor are clients given any direction about what course of action to take to solve their problem. The therapist makes no attempts to change the client directly. Instead, the therapist tries to create an atmosphere in which the client may change him or herself. |
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Term
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Definition
| | Cognition is a general term referring to awareness and thinking as well as to specific mental acts such as perceiving, interpreting, remembering, believing, and anticipating.
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Term
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Definition
| Differences in how people think form the focus of cognitive approaches to personality. Psychologists working in this approach focus on the components of cognition, such as how people perceive, interpret, remember, and plan, in their efforts to understand how and why people are different from each other. |
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Term
| Conditional Positive Regard |
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Definition
| According to Rogers, people behave in specific ways to earn the love and respect and positive regard of parents and other significant people in their lives. Positive regard, when it must be earned by meeting certain conditions, is called conditional positive regard. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Rogers, the requirements set forth by parents or significant others for earning their positive regard are called conditions of worth. Children may become preoccupied with living up to these conditions of worth, rather than discovering what makes them happy. |
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Definition
| A person's awareness of what they desire and believe is valuable and worth pursuing. |
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Definition
| A construct is a concept or provable hypothesis that summarizes a set of observations and conveys the meaning of those observations, e.g., gravity. |
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Definition
| According to Carl Rogers, in client-centered therapy there are three core conditions that must be present in order for progress to occur. The three core conditions are: 1. an atmosphere of genuine acceptance on the part of the therapist; 2. the therapist must express unconditional positive regard for the client, and 3. the client must feel that the therapist understands him or her (empathic understanding). |
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Definition
| The cultural context of intelligence looks at how the definition of intelligent behavior varies across different cultures. Because of these considerations, intelligence can be viewed as referring to those skills valued in a particular culture. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Dynamic refers to the interaction of forces within a person. |
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Term
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Definition
| Emotional intelligence is an adaptive form of intelligence consisting of the ability to: 1. know one's own emotions; 2. regulate those emotions; 3. motivate oneself; 4. know how others are feeling; and 5. influence how others are feeling. Goleman posited that emotional intelligence is more strongly predictive of professional status, marital quality, and salary than traditional measures of intelligence and aptitude. |
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Term
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Definition
| An effect size in meta-analysis indicates how large a particular difference is, or how strong a particular correlation is, as averaged over several experiments or studies. |
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Term
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Definition
| Emotional inhibition refers to the suppression of emotional expressions, and often thought of as a trait, e.g., some people chronically suppress their emotions. |
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Term
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Definition
| In Rogers's client-centered therapy, empathy is understanding the person from his or her point of view. Instead of interpreting the meaning behind what the client says (e.g., "you have a harsh super-ego that is punishing you for the actions of your id."), the client-centered therapist simply listens to what the client says and reflects it back. |
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Term
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Definition
| At the fourth level Maslow's motivation hierarchy are esteem needs. There are two types of esteem: esteem from others and self-esteem, the latter often depending on the former. People want to be seen by others as competent, as strong, and as able to achieve. They want to be respected by others for their achievements or abilities. People also want to feel good about themselves. Much of the activity of adult daily life is geared toward achieving recognition and esteem from others and bolstering one's own self-confidence. |
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Term
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Definition
| Whenever someone offers a cause for some event, that cause can be analyzed in terms of the three categories of attributions: internal-external, stable-unstable, and global-specific. The tendency a person has to employ certain combinations of attributions in explaining events (e.g., internal, stable, and global causes) is called their explanatory style. |
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Term
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Definition
| Expressiveness refers to the ease with which one can express emotions, such as crying, showing empathy for the troubles of others, and showing nurturance to those in need. |
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Term
| External Explanatory Style |
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Definition
| Interpreting the causes of events as being outside of one's control; the opposite of internal explanatory style. |
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Term
| External Locus of Control |
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Definition
| | Generalized expectancies that events are outside of one's control is called an external locus of control.
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Definition
| A psychological dimension containing traits such as nurturance, empathy, and expression of emotions (e.g., crying when sad). |
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Definition
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Definition
| A subjective state that people report when they are completely involved in an activity to the point of forgetting time, fatigue, and everything else but the activity itself. While flow experiences are somewhat rare, they occur under specific conditions; there is a balance between the persons skills and the challenges of the situation, there is a clear goal, and there is immediate feedback on how one is doing. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Gender refers to social interpretations of what it means to be a man or a woman. |
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Term
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Definition
| Gender schemas are cognitive orientations that lead individuals to process social information on the basis of sex-linked associations (Hoyenga & Hoyenga, 1993). |
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Term
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Definition
| Gender stereotypes are the beliefs that we hold about how men and women differ or are supposed to differ, which are not necessarily based on reality. Gender stereotypes can have important real-life consequences for men and women. These consequences can damage people where it most counts—in their health, their jobs, their odds of advancement, and their social reputations. |
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Term
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Definition
| | Early on in the study of intelligence, many psychologists thought of intelligence in trait-like terms, as a property of the individual. Individuals were thought to differ from each other in how much intelligence they possessed. Moreover, intelligence was thought of as a single broad factor, often called "g" for general intelligence. This stands in contrast to those views of intelligence as consisting of many discrete factors, such as social intelligence, emotional intelligence, and academic intelligence.
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Term
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Definition
| Rotter claimed that a person's expectations for reinforcement hold across a variety of situations, what he called generalized expectancies (Rotter, 1971, 1990). When people encounter a new situation, they base their expectancies about what will happen on their generalized expectancies about whether they have the abilities to influence events. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to explain causes of events in terms of very global rather than specific causes is referred to as a global explanatory style. People with a global explanatory style tend to blow things out of proportion. |
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Term
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Definition
| Although researchers have explored many facets of self-esteem, by far the most frequently measured component is global self-esteem, defined as "the level of global regard that one has for the self as a person" (Harter, 1993, p. 88). Global self-esteem can range from highly positive to highly negative, and reflects an overall evaluation of the self at the broadest level (Kling et al., 1999). Global self-esteem is linked with many aspects of functioning and is commonly thought to be central to mental health. |
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Term
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Definition
| Murray believed that each person has a unique combination of needs. An individual's various needs can be thought of as existing at a different level of strength. A person might have a high need for dominance, an average need for intimacy, and a low need for achievement. High levels of some needs interact with the amounts of various other needs within each person. |
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Term
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Definition
| Hormonal theories of sex differences argue that men and women differ not because of the external social environment, but rather because the sexes have different amounts of specific hormones. It is these physiological differences, not differential social treatment, which causes boys and girls to diverge over development. |
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Term
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Definition
| Humanistic psychologists emphasize the role of choice in human life, and the influence of responsibility on creating a meaningful and satisfying life. The meaning of any person's life, according to the humanistic approach, is found in the choices that person makes and the responsibility they take for those choices. The humanistic tradition also emphasizes the human need for growth and realizing one's full potential. In the humanistic tradition it is assumed that, if left to their own devices, humans will grow and develop in positive and satisfying directions. |
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Definition
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Term
| If . . . Then . . . Propositions |
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Definition
| A component of Walter Mischel's theory referring to the notion that, if situation A, the person does X, but if situation B, then the person does Y. Personality leaves its signature, Mischel argues, in terms of the specific situational ingredients that prompt behavior from the person. |
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Term
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Definition
| Implicit motivation refers to motives as they are measured in fantasy-based (i.e., TAT) techniques, as opposed to direct self-report measures. The implied motives of persons scored, for example, from TAT stories, is thought to reveal their unconscious desires and aspirations, their unspoken needs and wants. McClelland has argued that implicit motives predict long-term behavioral trends over time, such as implicit need for achievement predicting long-term business success. |
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Term
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Definition
| | McClelland believes that certain parental behaviors can promote high achievement motivation, autonomy, and independence in their children. One of these parenting practices is placing an emphasis on independence training. Training a child to be independent in different tasks promotes a sense of mastery and confidence in the child.
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Term
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Definition
| Information processing is the transformation of sensory input into mental representations and the manipulation of such representations. |
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Term
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Definition
| Inspection time, a variable in intelligence research, refers to the time it takes a person to make a simple discrimination between two displayed objects or two auditory intervals that differ by only a few milliseconds. This variable suggests that brain mechanisms specifically involved in discriminations of extremely brief time intervals represent a sensitive indicator of general intelligence. |
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Term
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Definition
| | Instrumentality refers to personality traits that involve working with objects, getting tasks completed in a direct fashion, showing independence from others, and displaying self-sufficiency.
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Term
| Internal Explanatory Style |
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Definition
| Psychologists use the term explanatory style to refer to tendencies some people have to frequently employ certain attributional categories when explaining the causes of events. People with an internal (compared to external) explanatory style tend to blame themselves for bad events and setbacks. Persons with an external explanatory style would do the opposite, that is, blame events on forces outside of their control, e.g., luck, fate. |
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Term
| Internal Locus of Control |
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Definition
| An internal locus of control refers to the generalized expectancy that reinforcing events are under one's control, and that one is responsible for the major outcomes in life. |
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Term
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Definition
| Interpretation is one of the three levels of cognition that are of interest to personality psychologists. Interpretation is the making sense of, or explaining, various events in the world. Psychoanalysts offer patients interpretations of the psychodynamic causes of their problems. Through many interpretations, patients are gradually led to an understanding of the unconscious source of their problems. |
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Term
| Kinesthetic Figural Aftereffect |
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Definition
| | In Petrie's kinesthetic figural aftereffect (KFA), subjects are blindfolded and presented with different sized wooden blocks. One block is a long wedge, and subjects can slide the fingers of one hand up and down the wedge. Using the other hand, participants are presented with wooden rectangular blocks of different size. Participants are asked to feel the width of a rectangular block with the other hand, and slide their other hand up the wooden wedge until they judge that the width of the wedge is equal to the width of the wooden block in their other hand. The KFA is a measure of individual differences in sensory reducing-augmenting.
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Term
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Definition
| Learned helplessness refers to the finding that animals (including humans), when subjected to unpleasant and inescapable circumstances, often become passive and accepting of their situation, in effect learning to be helpless. Researchers surmised that if people were in an unpleasant or painful situation, they would attempt to change the situation. However, if repeated attempts to change the situation failed, they would resign themselves to being helpless. Then, even if the situation did improve so that they could escape the discomfort, they would continue to act helpless. |
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Term
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Definition
| Locus of control is a concept that describes a person's perception of responsibility for the events in his or her life. It refers to whether people tend to locate that responsibility internally, within themselves, or externally, in fate, luck, or chance. Locus of control research started in the mid-1950s when Rotter was developing his social learning theory. |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
| By seeing another person engage in a particular behavior with positive results, the observer is more likely to imitate that behavior. It is a form of learning whereby the consequences for a particular behavior are observed, and thus the new behavior is learned. |
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Term
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Definition
| Motives refer to internal states that arouse and direct behavior toward specific objects or goals. A motive is often caused by a deficit, by the lack of something. Motives differ from each other in type, amount, and intensity, depending on the person and his or her circumstances. Motives are based on needs and propel people to perceive, think, and act in specific ways that serve to satisfy those needs. |
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Term
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Definition
| | The multi-motive grid, designed to assess motives, uses 14 pictures representing achievement, power, or intimacy and a series of questions about important motivational states to elicit answers from test subjects. In theory, the motives elicited from the photographs would influence how the subject answers the test questions.
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Term
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Definition
| Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences includes seven forms: interpersonal intelligence (social skills, ability to communicate and get along with other), intrapersonal intelligence (insight into oneself, one's emotions and motives), kinesthetic intelligence (the abilities of athletes, dancers, and acrobats), and musical intelligence. There are several other theories proposing multiple forms of intelligence. This position is in contrast to the theory of "g," or general intelligence, which holds that there is only one form of intelligence. |
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Term
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Definition
| The need for achievement, according to McClelland, is the desire to do better, to be successful, and to feel competent. A person with a high need for achievement obtains satisfaction from accomplishing a task or from the anticipation of accomplishing a task. They cherish the process of being engaged in a challenging task. |
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Term
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Definition
| McAdams defines the need for intimacy as the "recurrent preference or readiness for warm, close, and communicative interaction with others" (1990, p. 198). People with a high need for intimacy want more intimacy and meaningful human contact in their day-to-day lives than do those with a low need for intimacy. |
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Term
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Definition
| | Winter defines the need for power as a preference for having an impact on other people. Individuals with a high need for power are interested in controlling situations and other people.
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Term
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Definition
| Needs refer to states of tension within a person; as a need is satisfied, the state of tension is reduced. Usually the state of tension is caused by the lack of something (for example, a lack of food causes a need to eat). |
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Term
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Definition
| Processing information by relating it to objective facts. This style of thinking stands in contrast to personalizing cognitions. |
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Term
| Optimistic Explanatory Style |
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Definition
| | An explanatory style that emphasizes external, temporary, and specific causes of events.
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Term
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Definition
| | Pain tolerance is the degree to which people can tolerate pain, which shows wide differences between persons. Petrie believed that individual differences in pain tolerance originated in the nervous system. She developed a theory that people with low pain tolerance had a nervous system that amplified or augmented subjective impact sensory input. In contrast, people who could tolerate pain well were thought to have a nervous system that dampened or reduced the effects of sensory stimulation.
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Term
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Definition
| | Brian Little's people-things dimension of personality refers to the nature of vocational interests. Those at the "things" end of the dimension like vocations that deal with impersonal tasks—machines, tools, or materials. Examples include a carpenter, auto mechanic, building contractor, tool maker, or farmer. Those scoring toward the "people" end of the dimension prefer social occupations that involve thinking about others, caring for others, or directing others. Examples include a high school teacher, social worker, or religious counselor.
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Term
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Definition
| Perception is one of the three levels of cognition that are of interest to personality psychologists. Perception is the process of imposing order on the information our sense organs take in. Even at the level of perception, what we "see" in the world can be quite different from person to person. |
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Term
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Definition
| A personal construct is a belief or concept that summarizes a set of observations or version of reality, unique to an individual, which that person routinely uses to interpret and predict events. |
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Term
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Definition
| Processing information by relating it to a similar event in your own life. This style of processing information occurs when a person interprets a new event in a personally relevant manner. For example, they might see a car accident and start thinking about the time they were in a car accident. |
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Term
| Pessimistic Explanatory Style |
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Definition
| The pessimistic explanatory style puts a person at risk for feelings of helplessness and poor adjustment, and emphasizes internal, stable, and global causes for bad events. It is the opposite of optimistic explanatory style. |
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Term
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Definition
At the base of Maslow's need hierarchy are the physiological needs. These include those needs that are of prime importance to the immediate survival of the individual (the need for food, water, air, sleep) as well as to the long-term survival of the species (the need for sex).
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Term
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Definition
| According to Rogers, people who have received positive regard from others develop a sense of positive self-regard; they accept themselves, even their own weaknesses and shortcomings. A person with high positive self-regard would trust themselves, follow their own interests, and rely on their feelings to guide themselves to do the right thing. |
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Term
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Definition
| | In personality psychology, post modernism is the notion that reality is a construct, that every person and culture has its own unique version of reality, and that no single version of reality is more valid or more privileged than another.
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Term
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Definition
| According to David McClelland, when people do not get their way, or when their power is challenged or blocked, they are likely to show strong stress responses or "power stress." This stress has been linked to diminished immune function and increased illness in longitudinal studies. |
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Term
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Definition
| Murray used the term press to refer to need-relevant aspects of the environment. A person's need for intimacy, for example, won't affect that person's behavior without an appropriate environmental press (such as the presence of friendly people). |
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Term
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Definition
| One focus of self-regulation where the person is concerned with protection, safety, and the prevention of negative outcomes and failures. Behaviors with a prevention focus are characterized by vigilance, caution, and attempts to prevent negative outcomes. |
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Term
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Definition
| One focus of self-regulation where the person is concerned with advancement, growth, and accomplishments. Behaviors with a promotion focus are characterized by eagerness, approach, and "going for the gold." |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Rogers, all children are born wanting to be loved and accepted by their parents and others. He called this in-born need the desire for positive regard. |
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Term
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Definition
| A personal project is a set of relevant actions intended to achieve a goal that a person has selected. Psychologist Brian Little believes that personal projects make natural units for understanding the working of personality, because they reflect how people face up to the serious business of navigating through daily life. |
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Term
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Definition
| Petrie's reducer-augmenter theory refers to the dimension along which people differ in their reaction to sensory stimulation; some appear to reduce sensory stimulation, some appear to augment stimulation. |
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Definition
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Definition
| Life experiences that provide opportunities to learn to behave responsibly, such as having younger siblings to take care of while growing up. Moderates the gender difference in impulsive behaviors associated with need for power. |
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Term
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Definition
| Witkin devised an apparatus called the rod and frame test to research the cues that people use in judging orientation in space. The participant sits in a darkened room and is instructed to watch a glowing rod surrounded by a glowing square frame. The experimenter can adjust the tilt of the rod, the frame, and the participant's chair. The participant's task is to adjust the rod by turning a dial so that the rod is perfectly upright. To do this accurately, the participant has to ignore cues in the visual field in which the rod appears. This test measures the personality dimension of field dependence-independence. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rumination involves repeatedly focusing on one's symptoms or distress (e.g., "Why do I continue to feel so bad about myself" or "Why doesn't my boss like me?"). Because their ruminations fail to lead to efficacious solutions, according to this theory, women continue to ruminate. Rumination, according to this theory, is a key contributor to women's greater experience of depressive symptoms. |
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Term
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Definition
| At the second to lowest level of Maslow's need hierarchy are the safety needs. These needs have to do with shelter and security, such as having a place to live and being free from the threat of danger. Maslow believed that building a life that was orderly, structured, and predictable also fell under safety needs. |
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Term
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Definition
| Maslow defines self-actualization as becoming "more and more what one idiosyncratically is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming" (1970, p. 46). The pinnacle of Maslow's need hierarchy is the need for self-actualization. While Maslow was concerned with describing self-actualization, the work of Carl Rogers was focused on how people achieve self-actualization. |
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Term
| Self-Attributed Motivation |
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Definition
| McClelland argued that self-attributed motivation is primarily a person's self-awareness of his or her own conscious motives. These self-attributed motives reflect a person's conscious awareness about what is important to him or her. As such, they represent part of the individual's conscious self-understanding. McClelland has argued that self-attributed motives predict responses to immediate and specific situations and to choice behaviors and attitudes. See also implicit motives. |
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Term
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Definition
| Self-efficacy is a concept related to optimism developed by Bandura. This concept refers to the belief that one can behave in ways necessary to achieve some desired outcome. Self-efficacy also refers to the confidence one has in one's ability to perform the actions needed to achieve some specific outcome. |
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Term
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Definition
| As used in this book, the phrase "sex differences" simply refers to an average difference between women and men on certain characteristics such as height, body fat distribution, or personality characteristics, with no prejudgment about the cause of the difference. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| A general theoretical view which emphasizes the ways in which the presence of others influence people's behavior, thoughts, or feelings. Often combined with learning principles, the emphasis is on how people acquire beliefs, values, skills, attitudes, and patterns of behavior through social experiences. |
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Term
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Definition
| | According to social role theory, sex differences originate because men and women are distributed differentially into occupational and family roles. Men, for example, are expected to assume the bread-winning role. Women are expected to assume the housewife role. Over time, children presumably learn the behaviors that are linked to these roles.
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Term
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Definition
| | The socialization theory is the notion that boys and girls become different because boys are reinforced by parents, teachers, and the media for being "masculine," and girls for being "feminine." This is probably the most widely held theory of sex differences in personality.
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Term
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Definition
| | Recent researchers have developed specific locus of control scales for specific categories of events. This approach is referred to as specific expectancies, where the emphasis is on locus of control in discrete areas of life, such as health locus of control.
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Term
| Specific Explanatory Style |
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Definition
| An aspect of explanatory style, referring to attributing the causes of events to specific, rather than global, causes. |
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Term
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Definition
| When bad events happen, some people tend to think that the cause of such situations are permanent, that the causes are stable and long-lasting. This tendency is called a stable explanatory style and its opposite is called the unstable style. |
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Term
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Definition
| A concept that can be applied to motives and emotions, state levels refer to a person's momentary amount of a specific need or emotion, which can fluctuate with specific circumstances. |
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Term
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Definition
| Tender-mindedness is defined by a nurturant proclivity, having empathy for others, and being sympathetic with those who are downtrodden. |
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Term
| Thematic Apperception Test |
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Definition
| The Thematic Apperception Technique (TAT), developed by Murray and Morgan, is a projective assessment technique which consists of a set of black and white ambiguous pictures. The person is shown each picture and is told to write a short story interpreting what is happening in each picture. The psychologist then codes the stories for the presence of imagery associated with particular motives. The TAT remains a popular personality assessment technique today. |
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Term
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Definition
| concept that can be applied to motives and emotions, triat levels refer to a person's average tendency, or his or her set point, on the spefic motives or emotions |
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Term
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Definition
| Trust is defined by the proclivity to cooperate with others, giving others the benefit of the doubt, and viewing one's fellow human beings as basically good at heart. |
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Term
| Unconditional Positive Regard |
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Definition
| The receipt of affection, love, or respect without having done anything to earn it. For example, a parent's love for a child should be unconditional. |
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Term
| Unstable Explanatory Style |
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Definition
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