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October 1517 Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses, and the religious unity of Europe would be changed forever. This Protestant Reformation split Europe into opposing camps, each of which dressed for intense battle over the course of the 16th century and on into the 17th century. No one was left untouched. The Reformation, like all revolutions, forced people to make decisions, and the decisions one made often meant the difference between life and death.
Martin Luther believed he had found the answers to some of these questions. From his Augustinian conscience, Luther faced the greatest issue of faith -- how do I find salvation? Surely the indulgence -- literally, buying your way into heaven -- was not the answer. The concept of predestination was -- our salvation depends upon the will of God alone. Such a drastic proposition had enormous consequences for it meant that the intercession of the pope and bishops had nothing to do with either faith or salvation. What Luther had done was internalize faith -- rather than depend upon external devices for salvation, Luther turned inward. And there he found the comfort for his troubled conscience.
A. Explaining the success of Martin Luther (1483-1546)
1. Why did Luther break with Rome?
a. Peasants hoped Lutheranism would free them from the exactions of their lords
2. Why did ordinary Germans rally to his cause?
a. Towns and princes were trying to consolidate their political independence
3. Why did German princes impose Lutheranism in their territories?
a. Nationalist demands for liberation from foreign popes
4. From reforming the Church to a frontal assault on the Church
B. Luther's quest for religious certainty
1. Luther and his father
2. Sent to the University of Erfurt to study law
3. 1505: Luther enters an Augustinian monastery
4. 1513: Conversion experience -- the quest for spiritual peace
5. The problem of the justice of God
a. How could God issue commands man could not obey?
b. Eternal damnation as punishment
6. The "tower experience"
a. Meditates upon the Psalms ("deliver me in thy justice")
b. God's power lay in His mercy to save sinful mortals through faith
7. Paul's Letter to the Romans (1:17) -- "the just shall live by faith"
8. God's justice does not depend on "good works" and religious ceremonies
9. Humans are saved by grace alone ("justification by faith alone")
10. Piety and charity as visible signs of the faithful
11. Salvation and the Church
a. The Church (sacraments) and the believer (piety and charity) could effect salvation
b. The Church "quantified" the process of salvation
c. The "Treasury of Merits"
d. The indulgence
i. Remission of the penitential obligations imposed by priests
ii. Indulgences "earned" by demanding spiritual exercises (11th/12th centuries)
iii. Indulgences "granted" with a monetary payment
12. Indulgences seen by many as just another form of "simony" (selling grace in return for cash)
13. "Here I stand; God help me, I can do no other." |
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a. The bargain with Pope Leo X
i. Grants Albert an indulgence
ii. Half the money goes to build St. Peter's Basilica at Rome
iii. Half the money goes to Albert
--charges Luther with heresy |
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The Diet of Worms
1. Initiative lay with presiding officer, Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor)
-He was Catherine’s Nephew |
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1. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
a. Theologically moderate form of Lutheranism
b. Catholic theology and practice conflicted with the Gospels
c. Condemned religious images and hierarchical authority
d. The eucharist was a reminder of Christ's sacrifice, not the real presence of Christ's body (Luther)
i. Prevented Lutherans an Zwinglians from joining forces in a united front |
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1. Anabaptism
a. Radical Protestant sect
b. Convinced that baptism was effective only if administered to willing adults
c. Men and women are not born into any church
d. Feared by both Catholics and Protestants
e. Münster (1534) |
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1. John Calvin's reformed theology
a. John Calvin (1509-1564
i. Born near Paris, studied law, became a humanist
ii. Institutes of the Christian Religion
iii. The omnipotence of God
iv. v. Man is by nature a sinner
v. Predestination and "the Elect"
vi. An active life of piety and morality
b. Calvin and church government
i. Rejected popery outright
ii. Eliminated all traces of hierarchy
iii. Congregational election of ministers and assemblies of ministers and electors
iv. v. "Four bare walls and a sermon"
2. Calvinism in Geneva
a. Calvin begins preaching in 1536, expelled in 1538, returns in 1541
b. Calvinist theocracy
c. The Consistory -- 12 lay elders, 10-20 pastors
d. The supervision of morality
e. Spread of Calvinism
i. John Knox (c.1513-1572) -- brought Calvinism to Scotland (Presbyterians)
ii. The Dutch Reformed Church
iii. French Huguenots
iv. v. English Puritans
-French-born Protestant theologian who stressed the predestination of all human fate according to God's will. |
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1. Calvinism in Geneva
a. Calvin begins preaching in 1536, expelled in 1538, returns in 1541
b. Calvinist theocracy
c. The Consistory -- 12 lay elders, 10-20 pastors
d. The supervision of morality
e. Spread of Calvinism
i. John Knox (c.1513-1572) -- brought Calvinism to Scotland (Presbyterians)
ii. The Dutch Reformed Church
iii. French Huguenots
iv. v. English Puritans
Geneva became the home of Calvinism, which eventually spread to England, Scotland, the Low Countries, France, and Eastern Europe. (p. 478) |
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A. Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) and the break with Rome
1. 1527: Henry seeks a divorce from Catherine of Aragon in order to marry Anne Boleyn
2. Appealed to Rome for an annulment of his marriage
a. If the pope agreed, doubt would be cast on the validity of all papal dispensations
b. It would also provoke the wrath of Charles V, Catherine's nephew
3. 1531: Henry declares himself to be "protestor and supreme head" of the church in England
4. 1534: the Act of Supremacy
5. Consequences
a. Pilgrimages and relics were prohibited
b. English Church remained Catholic in organization, doctrine, ritual, and language
c. 1539: the Six Articles of the faith
. Henry VIII had no heir and so he decided to divorce Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn. But this was not possible unless he received an annulment from the pope. It was not to be. So, Henry simply compelled the English clergy to declare him to be "protector and only supreme head" of the church in England. Although Edward continued to enforce the policies of Henry, Mary Tudor did her best to reverse the trend toward Protestantism. The issue of whether England would be Protestant or Catholic was resolved by Elizabeth I by the new Act of Supremacy of 1559
-Often-married English monarch who broke with the Roman Catholic church when the pope refused to grant him an annulment. The resulting modified version of Christianity became the Church of England, or Anglicanism. |
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1. 1527: Henry seeks a divorce from Catherine of Aragon in order to marry Anne Boleyn
Henry VIII had no heir and so he decided to divorce Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn. But this was not possible unless he received an annulment from the pope. |
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A. Edward VI (r. 1547-1553)
1. Came to the throne at nine years of age
2. Altered ceremonies of the English Church
a. Priests were permitted to marry
b. English was substituted for Latin
c. The veneration of images was abolished
d. New articles of faith were drawn up repudiating all sacraments except baptism and communion
e. Justification by faith alone
Although Edward continued to enforce the policies of Henry, Mary Tudor did her best to reverse the trend toward Protestantism. The issue of whether England would be Protestant or Catholic was resolved by Elizabeth I by the new Act of Supremacy of 1559 |
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A. Mary Tudor (r. 1553-1558) and the restoration of Catholicism
1. Reversed Edward's religious policies
2. Many were burned at the stake for refusing to give up their Protestantism
3. Asked Parliament to vote a return to papal allegiance
4. "Bloody Mary"
Mary Tudor did her best to reverse the trend toward Protestantism
-Catholic daughter of Henry VIII, Called "Bloody Mary" for her violent suppression of Protestants during her five-year reign. |
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A. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement
1. Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603)
a. Daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn
2. The new Act of Supremacy (1559)
a. Repealed Mary's Catholic legislation
b. Prohibited foreign powers from exercising authority within England
c. Declared herself "supreme governor" of the English church
d. Retained some Catholic vestiges
3. 1562: the Thirty-Nine Articles of Faith
4. Protestantism and English nationalism: God has chosen England for greatness
The issue of whether England would be Protestant or Catholic was resolved by Elizabeth I by the new Act of Supremacy of 1559.
-Protestant daughter of Henry VIII. During her long reign, details of the new Anglican church were standardized to encompass a broad variety of beliefs. |
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1. St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)
a. Spanish noble wounded in battle (1521) became a "spiritual solider of Christ"
b. Ecstatic visions
c. The Spiritual Exercises
i. Practical advice on how to master the will
ii. A program of meditations on sin and the life of Christ
d. The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded at Paris in 1534
i. Formally constituted as a holy order by Pope Paul III (1540)
ii. A company of soldiers sworn to defend the faith
iii. Eloquence, persuasion, and instruction
iv. v. The suppression of individuality
v. Proselytizing Christians and non-Christians alike
vi. Establishing schools
vii. Became an international movement
Society of JesusAlso called the Jesuit order, a group of priests influenced by military discipline. Founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) and still very active in the field of education. |
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| Justification by Faith Alone |
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Question 1: What were the theological premises of Lutheranism?
Author Answer: There are three basic premises of Lutheranism. (1) By arguing the principle, "justification by faith alone," Luther meant that God's justice did not depend upon outward signs of piety, such as "good works" or ceremonies. Instead, the salvation of humankind is dependent on the grace of God alone, a notion identified as predestination. (2) Luther believed that the literal meaning of Scripture ought to take precedence over church traditions and practices. Anything not grounded in Scripture was rejected as a human invention. (3) Luther declared that all Christian believers were spiritually equal before God (the "priesthood of all believers"). Neither priest nor monk had any special spiritual qualities by virtue of their vocation. (pp. 470-472)
1. Humans are saved by grace alone ("justification by faith alone")
2. Luther's pamphlets of 1520 -- general ideas
a. Justification by faith alone |
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General consequences
One is that: Good works do not lead to salvation
Meaning: fast, pilgrimages, and the veneration of relics were valueless
a. Reaffirmed Catholic doctrine
i. Good works declared necessary for salvation
ii. The seven sacraments
iii. Papal supremacy
Question 1: What were the theological premises of Lutheranism?
Author Answer: There are three basic premises of Lutheranism. (1) By arguing the principle, "justification by faith alone," Luther meant that God's justice did not depend upon outward signs of piety, such as "good works" or ceremonies. Instead, the salvation of humankind is dependent on the grace of God alone, a notion identified as predestination. (2) Luther believed that the literal meaning of Scripture ought to take precedence over church traditions and practices. Anything not grounded in Scripture was rejected as a human invention. (3) Luther declared that all Christian believers were spiritually equal before God (the "priesthood of all believers"). Neither priest nor monk had any special spiritual qualities by virtue of their vocation. (pp. 470-472) |
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1. October 31, 1517: Luther's Ninety-Five Theses
a. Written in Latin, intended for academic dispute
b. Translated and published in German
c. 1519: public disputation in Leipzig
i. Luther maintains that the pope and all clerics were merely fallible men
ii. The highest authority for an individual's conscience was the truth of Scripture
Pope leo then charges luther with heresy!
But in October 1517 Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses, and the religious unity of Europe would be changed forever. This Protestant Reformation split Europe into opposing camps, each of which dressed for intense battle over the course of the 16th century and on into the 17th century. No one was left untouched. The Reformation, like all revolutions, forced people to make decisions, and the decisions one made often meant the difference between life and death. |
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Ninety five Theses said The highest authority for an individual's conscience was the truth of Scripture
1. Luther's pamphlets of 1520 -- general ideas
a. Justification by faith alone
b. The primacy of Scripture
i. The literal meaning of Scripture takes precedence over Church traditions
c. The "priesthood of all believers"
i. All Christian believers are spiritually equal before God
2. General consequences
a. Good works do not lead to salvation
i. fast, pilgrimages, and the veneration of relics were valueless
b. The dissolution of all monasteries and convents
c. Proposed substituting German for Latin in church services
d. Reduced the number of sacraments from seven to two (baptism and the Eucharist)
e. Denied that the Mass was a repetition of Christ's sacrifice on the cross
f. Proposed the abolition of the entire ecclesiastical hierarchy of popes and bishops. |
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| Priesthood of All Believers |
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a. The "priesthood of all believers"
i. All Christian believers are spiritually equal before God
Luther declared that all Christian believers were spiritually equal before God (the "priesthood of all believers"). Neither priest nor monk had any special spiritual qualities by virtue of their vocation. |
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| Swiss Protestant movement that insisted that only adults could choose to be baptized Christians. The first generation, who had been baptized as infants according to Catholic practice, were "re-baptized," hence the name. |
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John Calvin’s reformed theology
-predestination and “the elect” |
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| The Protestant patriarchal family: pay attention to Protestant attitudes towards women, sexuality, and children. |
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Question:
How did the notions of family and marriage change during the Reformation?
Author Answer: In general, both the family and marriage were "domesticated" by the Reformation. The patriarchal family served as the central institution of Reformed life. The ideal woman was no longer the celibate nun but the married and obedient Protestant "goodwife." The Reformation also recognized the holiness of marital sexuality. However, to control women and prevent sin, all women ought to be married, preferably at a young age. The Reformation also increased parental control over children's choice of marriage partners. In the end, marriage became an entirely secular matter. (pp. Insert 483A-485) |
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Question 5: How did the Catholic Reformation differ from the Counter-Reformation?
Author Answer: The Catholic Reformation refers to that period of moderate reform coming before Martin Luther. It is characterized by moral and institutional reform of various religious orders and was influenced to some degree by the northern Christian humanists such as Erasmus and Thomas More. The Counter-Reformation, appearing as it did after Luther had set the Reformation in motion, was far more radical and aggressive. The Council of Trent, for instance, declared papal supremacy and made provisions for eliminating abuses and reinforcing discipline. The Index of Forbidden Books was instituted to censure all Protestant works, especially the humanist writings of Erasmus. Loyola and the Jesuits defended the faith with a near military zeal. The whole object of the Counter-Reformation was to defend and revitalize the faith. (pp. 490-495)
I. Catholicism Transformed
A. The Catholic Reformation
1. First phase (c. 1490s)
a. A movement for moral and institutional reform within the religious orders
i. Papacy showed little interest in this
b. Influence of northern humanists (Erasmus and More)
i. Encouraged the laity to lead lives of simple but sincere religious piety
2. Second Phase (c. 1530s)
a. More aggressive phase of reform
b. New style of papal leadership
i. "Excessive" holiness
ii. Accomplished administrators
iii. Reorganized papal finances
3. Third Phase: the Council of Trent (1545-1563)
a. Reaffirmed Catholic doctrine
i. Good works declared necessary for salvation
ii. The seven sacraments
iii. Papal supremacy
b. Bishops and priests were forbidden to hold more than one spiritual office
c. Establishment of theological seminaries
d. Established the Index of Forbidden Books (1564) |
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| The Index of Prohibited Books |
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a. Third phase Council of Trent-- Established the Index of Forbidden Books (1564)
The Council of Trent, for instance, declared papal supremacy and made provisions for eliminating abuses and reinforcing discipline. The Index of Forbidden Books was instituted to censure all Protestant works, especially the humanist writings of Erasmus. Loyola and the Jesuits defended the faith with a near military zeal. The whole object of the Counter-Reformation was to defend and revitalize the faith. (pp. 490-495) |
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| The Jesuit Order (Society of Jesus) |
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a. The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded at Paris in 1534
i. Formally constituted as a holy order by Pope Paul III (1540)
Society of Jesus Also called the Jesuit order, a group of priests influenced by military discipline. Founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) and still very active in the field of education. |
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| The Indulgence Campaign of 1517 |
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Same time as 95 theses…
Indulgences:
Church-sponsored fund-raising mechanism that gave certification that one’s sins had been forgiven in return for money. |
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A. The Diet of Worms (1521)
1. Luther handed over to Elector Frederick the Wise for punishment as a heretic
2. Frederick convened a Diet (formal assembly) to give Luther a "fair hearing"
3. Initiative lay with presiding officer, Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor)
4. Would not tolerate attacks on the Church or the Emperor
5. Luther "kidnapped" by Frederick and brought to the castle of the Wartburg
6. Edict of Worms declared Luther an outlaw (never enforced)
-Examination of Luther by a church council in 1521 which condemned him. Luther was rescued by Frederick of Saxony. |
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1. Third phase of the catholic reformation
Third Phase: the Council of Trent (1545-1563)
a. Reaffirmed Catholic doctrine
i. Good works declared necessary for salvation
ii. The seven sacraments
iii. Papal supremacy
b. Bishops and priests were forbidden to hold more than one spiritual office
c. Establishment of theological seminaries
Established the Index of Forbidden Books (1564)
. The Council of Trent, for instance, declared papal supremacy and made provisions for eliminating abuses and reinforcing discipline. The Index of Forbidden Books was instituted to censure all Protestant works, especially the humanist writings of Erasmus. Loyola and the Jesuits defended the faith with a near military zeal. The whole object of the Counter-Reformation was to defend and revitalize the faith.
The council of Trent Intermittent meeting of Catholic leaders 1545-1563 that reaffirmed Catholic doctrine but sought to minimize abuses within the church that Protestant reformers had denounced. |
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