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| groups of atoms that determine organic molecules' chemical reactivity |
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| only carbon & hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbons) connected by single bonds |
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| compounds with the same connectivity but differing in the relative positioning of their component atoms in space |
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one halogen atom may be replaced by another
Ex) CH3-Cl + KI -> CH3-I + KCl |
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adjacent atoms may be removed from a molecule to generate a double bond
Ex) HCH2-ICH2 + KOH -> H2C=CH2 + HOH + KI |
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| Wohler's Synthesis of Urea |
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Definition
| lead cyanate + water + ammonia -> urea + lead hydroxide |
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| the starting compounds of a chemical reaction |
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| species formed on the pathway between reactants & products |
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| Coulomb's Law of Electric Charge |
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Definition
| opposite charges attract each other (electrons are attracted to protons) & like charges repel each other (electrons spread out in space) |
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| Coulomb's Law (Mathematical) |
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Definition
| attracting force = constant x [(+ charge x - charge)/distance^2] |
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| the decrease in energy because the attractive force causes energy to be released as the neural atoms are brought together |
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| the distance between the two nuclei when the atoms reach a certain closeness where no more energy is released |
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| two extreme types of bonding which explain the interactions between atoms in organic molecules |
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Definition
1. covalent bond
2. ionic bond |
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Definition
| formed by the sharing of electrons so that each atom attains a noble-gas configuration |
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| based on the electrostatic attraction of two ions with opposite charges |
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| eight electrons in the outer shell |
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| the energy it takes to remove an electron from an atom |
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| energy released when an electron attaches itself to an atom |
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| a hydrogen which has lost its electron |
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| a hydrogen which has accepted an additional electron |
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drawings which depict electrons as dots around the atomic symbol
Ex) H:C:::C:H |
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Definition
| electron donating; electrons are held less tightly by the nucleus than those of elements to the right |
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| electron accepting/electron pulling |
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| covalent bonds between atoms of differing electronegativity |
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| the separation of opposite charges; symbolized by an arrow crossed at its tail & pointing from positive to negative |
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| electron repulsion is at a minimum in a _____ structure |
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Definition
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| lone electron pairs/lone pairs |
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Definition
| pairs of valence electrons not used for bonding |
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| when charges exist on atoms even in neutral molecules |
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| when elements beyond the second row may be surrounded by more than eight valence electrons |
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Term
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Definition
| covalent single bonds are represented by straight lines, double bonds are represented by two lines, triple bonds are represented by three lines; lone electron pairs can either be shown as dots or simply omitted |
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Definition
| multiple correct Lewis pictures of the same molecule |
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Definition
| when a negative charge is evenly spread out over atoms in a molecule; electrons "spread out in space" |
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Definition
| the true structure of a molecule is a composite of its resonance forms |
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Term
| 4 important points about resonance forms |
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Definition
1. pushing one electron pair toward one atom & away from another results in a movement of charge
2. the relative positions of the atoms stay unchanged (only electrons are moved)
3. equivalent resonance forms contribute equally to the resonance hybrid
4. the arrows connecting resonance forms are double headed (<->) |
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Term
| major resonance contributor (3 guidelines) |
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Definition
1. structures with a maximum of octets are most important
2. charges should be preferentially located on atoms with compatible electronegativity
3. structures with less separation of opposite charges are more important resonance contributors than those with charge separation |
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Definition
| the regions around a nucleus where electrons can be found |
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| electrons "orbit" around a nucleus |
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| points at which the sign changes on matter waves |
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| the theory of electron motion that states that waves that interact in phase reinforce each other (larger wave amplitude) & waves that interact out of phase interfere with each other (smaller wave amplitude) |
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| which Greek letter is used to denote wave functions? |
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Definition
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solutions of equal energy
Ex) 2Px, 2Py, & 2Pz energy orbitals (energetically equivalent) |
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| 3 rules for assigning electrons to atomic orbitals |
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Definition
1. lower-energy orbitals are filled before those with higher energy
2. no orbital may be occupied by more than two electrons
3. degenerate orbitals (such as p orbitals) are first occupied by one electron each, all of these electrons having the same spin |
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| Pauli exclusion principle |
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Definition
| no orbital may be occupied by more than two electrons |
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| orientation of an electron's intrinsic angular momentum |
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| electrons of opposing spin occupying the same orbitals |
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| degenerate orbitals area first occupied by one electron each, all of these electrons having the same spin; subsequently, electrons of opposite spin are added to the first set |
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| closed-shell configuration |
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Definition
| atoms that have completely filled sets of atomic orbitals |
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Definition
| atoms that have incompletely filled sets of atomic orbitals |
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Definition
| the process of adding electrons one by one to the orbital sequence |
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| bonding molecular orbital |
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Definition
| an orbital of lower energy resulting from the in-phase overlap of two orbitals |
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| antibonding molecular orbital |
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Definition
| the result of out-of-phase overlap between the same two atomic orbitals; destabilizing |
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Definition
| the amount of energy by which the bonding level drops & the antibonding level is raised |
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| a bond in which the atomic orbitals are aligned along the internuclear axis |
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| a bond in which the atomic orbitals are perpendicular to the internuclear axis |
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Definition
| the mixing of atomic orbitals on the same atom |
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| formed through the mixing of atomic orbitals on the same atom |
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| molecules that have the same number of electrons |
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| reveals empirical formula |
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Definition
| summarizes the kinds & ratios of the elements present in a molecule |
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| the sequence of the atoms in a molecule |
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| constitutional/structural isomers |
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Definition
| molecules which have the same molecular formula but differ in the sequence in which the atoms are held together |
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| single bonds & lone pairs are omitted when drawing molecular structure |
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Definition
| portrays the carbon frame by zigzag straight lines, omitting all hydrogen atoms |
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| hash-wedged/solid-wedged line notation |
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Definition
| zigzag convention to depict the main carbon chain; each apex (carbon) is connected to two additional lines, one hashed wedged & one solid wedged to represent atoms below/above the plane of the page |
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