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| enables you to interpret what you see and hear around you, recognize important people and places in your life, and recall past events. |
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| one’s memory of personal life experiences and are remembered events that we’ve personally experienced. |
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| one’s general knowledge of the world, independent of those experiences; semantic memories typically stay with us longer than episodic memories. |
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| includes information about how to respond under different circumstances. |
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declarative and procedural knowledge merge together into conceptual knowledge which reflects our understanding of why certain events happened, why certain things are the way they are, and why certain procedures are effective but others are not.
• the integration of numerous concepts plus other declarative knowledge into general understandings of certain situations or phenomena. |
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| Explicit knowledge vs. Implicit knowledge |
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• Explicit knowledge → knowledge that we can EASILY recall and explain.
• Implicit knowledge → knowledge that we can’t consciously recall. |
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| How is knowledge encoded into long-term memory? |
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| Knowledge is encoded in long-term memory in ways that reflect something’s physical characteristics or as physical actions or encoding symbols represented by words. |
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| What does encoding in physical terms mean? |
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• Perception-based forms of encoding are often referred to as imagery.
• Photographic memory → eidetic imagery.
• Visual imagery involves envisioning motion and sometimes has a spatial component, in that an individual can imagine how objects might be manipulated arranged, or rearranged in space → Visuospatial memory.
• Gestures often seem to represent aspects of visual or spatial encoding and may communicate implicit knowledge. |
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| What does encoding in terms of actions mean? |
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| Action-based encoding is important in procedural knowledge, when that knowledge involves psychomotor skills. |
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When procedural knowledge involves conditional knowledge, when it involves knowing what to do under varying circumstances.
• Productions can best be described as a set of IF-THEN rules and are presumably involved in procedures that have significant cognitive component.
o IF: specifies the condition under which a particular action will occur.
o THEN: specifies what the action will actually be. |
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| What does encoding through symbols mean? |
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| A symbol is something that represents an object or event, often without bearing much resemblance of the thing it stands for. |
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Meanings are stored as propositions → small units of knowledge concerning relationships among objects or events.
1. can stand as a separate statement or assertion.
2. can be judged as being either true or false. |
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| objects or events that are the topics of the proposition. |
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| a description of an argument or a relationship among two or more arguments. |
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| Can one piece of information be encoded in multiple ways? |
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Yes, we sometimes encode the same information simultaneously in two or more different ways.
• Long-term memory also includes innumerable interconnects among bits of knowledge about different things. |
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various pieces of information stored in long-term memory are either directly or indirectly associated with one another.
• learners relate and organize their long-term memories somewhat uniquely because their past experiences have been different. |
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| What are some long-term organizational systems? |
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1. Hierarchy
2. Network
3. Parallel distributed processing |
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Long-term memory organization can be information stored in hierarchies; superordinate information at the top and more specific, subordinate information below.
• The farther apart the two components were in the hierarchy, the longer it would take to verify a statement.
• Creating categories → facilitates meaningful learning.
Drawbacks: Much of the information we learn does not have a hierarchical quality to it. |
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A network model portrays memory as consisting of many pieces of information interconnected through a variety of associations.
• Different individuals have networks with somewhat different associations.
• The propositional network is one in which propositions and their interrelationships are stored in a network-like fashion.
• We can characterize meaningful learning as a process of storing new propositions with related propositions in the network. |
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| Long-Term as Parallel distributed process |
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Information is stored in the form of an integrated collection of entities called nodes.
• Any single node may be associated with many different pieces of information as a unique network of interconnected nodes. |
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| Parallel Distributed Processing |
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Parallel distributed processing (PDP) or connectionism: pieces of information are stored in a distributed fashion throughout long-term memory, with numerous nodes being processed simultaneously.
• the multidimensional nature of even the simplest of ideas.
• fill in missing information when a stimulus is incomplete.
• the PDP model tends to portray learning as a gradual process of strengthening and weakening associations. |
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| is a mental grouping of objects or events that are similar in some way. |
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| are easily identified by physical appearance. |
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| have underlying similarities that aren’t readily observable on the surface. |
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| Positive instances vs. Negative instances |
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| A positive instance is a particular example of a concept vs. a negative instance is a nonexample of the concept. |
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| Undergeneralization vs. Overgeneralization |
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• Undergeneralization reflects an inability to recognize all positive instances.
• Overgeneralization reflects an inability to reject all negative instances. |
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| What do people learn about concepts? |
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Concepts includes knowing that certain features are important for positive instances.
• Defining features are characteristics that must be present in ALL positive instances.
• Correlational features are frequently found in positive instances but aren’t essential for concept membership.
• A prototype, or typical example of the concept.
• Numerous examples, or exemplars. |
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| How do people learn concepts? |
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• Behaviorists: a concept not as a mental entity but rather as a common response to a variety of stimuli.
• Contemporary psychologists: a relatively passive buildup of associations may form the basis of some concepts.
• In some instances learners may form various hypotheses about a concept’s meaning and then use positive and negative instances to confirm or reject each hypothesis.
• Someone provides a definition. |
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| When are concepts easier to learn? |
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| The more obvious the features of a concept are, the easier the concept is to master. |
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| What facilitates concept learning? |
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| A good definition describes the concept in terms of other concepts with which students are already familiar with. |
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| What can help illustrate a concept? |
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| Numerous and varied positive instances help to illustrate a concept. Negative instances are helpful in defining the concept’s limits and preventing overgeneralization. |
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a series of positive and negative instances one at a time over a period of weeks, months, or years.
• Learners must store what they’ve learned from each instance in long-term memory, where it is likely to be forgotten. |
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| Simultaneous presentation |
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| in which people can see a number of positive and negative instances all at once. |
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| What role do classroom assessments have in concept learning? |
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| Classroom assessment tasks can enhance as well as monitor concept learning. |
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usually refers to a closely connected set of ideas related to a specific object or event.
• Schemas and scripts provide a means for reducing this information overload.
• Focus their attention on things that are likely to be important and to ignore what’s probably unimportant.
• They enable people to make sense of incomplete information. |
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People form general theories – coherent beliefs systems that encompass cause-and-effect relationships – about many aspects of the world around them.
• Personal theories about the world seem to guide people as they identify potential defining features of concepts they’re learning.
• Personal theories help people organize and make sense of personal experiences and information. |
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a theoretical perspective about people’s everyday theories.
• Theory theory is quite useful in helping us understand why people sometimes misconstrue the world around them. |
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| Personal theories vs. Reality |
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People’s erroneous notions about the world probably have a variety of sources and sometimes misconceptions result from how things appear to be.
• fostered by common expressions in language.
• may cause an individual to infer incorrect cause-and-effect relationships.
• are mistaking correlation for causation.
• well-engrained misconceptions about the topic.
• acquire scientifically acceptable understandings is more difficult. |
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| What can help learners tie ideas together and enhance their understanding of concepts? |
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Physical models can help learners tie ideas together.
• Mental modes → representations of how particular concepts and principles interrelate
o Group interaction can enhance learners’ theoretical understanding. |
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A worldview is a general set of beliefs and assumptions about reality → about how things are and should be, which influence understandings of a wide variety of phenomena.
• Worldviews encompass implicit rather than explicit knowledge. |
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The process of replacing one personal theory or belief system with another, presumably more adaptive one; tightly interconnected sets of ideas.
• Conceptual change occurs gradually over a lengthy time period. |
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o Learners existing beliefs affect their interpretations of new information.
o Most learners have confirmation bias, which is when learners tend to look for information that confirms their existing beliefs and to ignore/discredit any contradictory evidence. |
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| Is it possible to change a learner's misconception of a concept? |
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Yes, but changing misconceptions involves changing an entire organized body of knowledge.
• People learn new info without letting go of their prior beliefs, so that long-term memory simultaneously holds inconsistent ideas. Sometimes this happens because people learn the new info at a rote level, |
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| What can cause a learner to keep a tight hold of a misconception? |
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Learners may have personal or emotional investment in their existing beliefs.
• Their beliefs may be an integral part of their religion, life style, or culture.
• Learners may interpret challenges to their belief systems as threats to their self-efficacy |
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| When are learners more likely to replace misconceptions? |
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| Students are more likely to replace a misconception with a more accurate understanding, if they’re thinking about both ideas at the same time. |
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| possible objections to a particular explanation are presented and then discredited. |
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| Their knowledge tends to be tightly organized, with many interrelationships among the things they know and with many abstract generalizations unifying more concrete details. |
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| What are the stages in the acquisition of knowledge? |
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1. Acclimation: learners familiarize themselves with a new content domain → fragmented learning
2. Competence: learners acquire considerably more info about the subject matter, and they also acquire some general principles that help tie the info together and they correct many of the specific misconceptions they’ve previously developed.
3. Expertise: learners have truly mastered their field and they know a great deal about the subject matter. |
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| What affect do concepts have on general knowledge? |
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• Concepts reduce the world’s complexity.
• Concepts allow abstraction of the environment.
• Concepts enhance the power of thought.
• Concepts facilitate inferences and generalization to new situations.
• Concepts make it easier for us to make connections. |
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