1. Anatomy

2. Physiology

1. the study of body structure (word is derived from the Greek and means “to cut” or “cutting backwards” (putting things together from slices)

2. the science of body functions (including the study of homeostasis (keeping the organs systems of the body in balance)

Surface Anatomy

- The study of form and markings of the body surface, often explored through visualization or palpation (without any “cutting”)

Gross Anatomy

- The study of anatomical structures visible to unaided eye.  After making the appropriate surface marking in the prior picture, the gross dissection  proceeds through “cutting.”

Gross Anatomy can be studied by two general approaches, what are they?

1. Systemic Anatomy (Study all of the blood vessels, or all of the muscles, or all of the bones… at once)

2. Regional Anatomy (All anatomical structures of a specific region (e.g. the thorax, or the Head and Neck) are all studied together.)

Developmental Anatomy

- The study of the fertilized egg developing into its adult form (Embryology is a subcategory)

Histology

- The study of tissues

Cytology

- Like Histology; uses a microscope, but restricts the study to individual cellular structures

Pathology

- Study of anatomical changes due to disease (Pathologists use gross inspection, as well as cytologic, histologic, and laboratory examinations to discover the source of the disease.)

What are some of the purposes of an autopsy?

- determine the cause of death

- identify diseases not detected during life

- determine the extent of injuries and contribution to death

- identify hereditary conditions

Name the levels of organization from smallest to largest.

- chemical (atomic and molecular), cellular, tissue, organ, system, organism

What are the basic structural and functional units of an organism?

- Cells! A trained cytologist can recognize about 210 different kinds of cells under a light microscope.

1. What are groups of cells that work together to perform a similar function?

2. What are the four basic types?

1. Tissues.

2. Epithelium, Connective, Muscle, and Nerve

What are structures composed of two or more different types of tissues?

- Organs. All but the simplest of organs have all 4 basic tissues represented. For example, the skin contains epithelium, connective, muscle, and nerve tissue.

Define an organ system and give an example.

- Consists of related organs with a common function.

- Ex: Digestive system; handles all aspects of taking in and breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste. It includes all the organs of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

How many organ systems are in the human body?

- 11

- Circulatory, Digestive, Endocrine, Integumentary, Lymphatic, Muscular, Nervous, Renal/Urinary, Reproductive, Respiratory, and Skeletal

Define organism and name the six important life processes.

- Consists of a collection of organ systems.

- Metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, reproduction

In health, all parts of the body must be functioning together in a process called ________.

- Homeostasis.

1. What is metabolism?

2. What does catabolic mean?

3. What does anabolic mean? 

1. The sum of all the catabolic and anabolic chemical processes that occur in the body.

2. Breaking down

3. Building up

Define responsiveness and give examples.

- The body’s ability to detect and respond to changes which might represent an opportunity or a threat!

- Examples: Decrease in body temperature, responding to sound, and nerve (electrical signals) and muscle cells (contracting)

What is any motion, including that of tiny sub-cellular structures, or that inside cells or organs?

- Movement.

- Leg muscles move the body from one place to another.

What involves an increase in body size due to an increase in existing cells, number of cells, or both?

- Growth.

- In bone growth, materials between cells increase.

What is the development of a cell from an unspecialized to specialized state? Give an example.

- Differentiation.

- Stem cells give rise to cells that undergo differentiation

What is the formation of new cells (growth, repair, or replacement) or the production of a new individual?

- Reproduction.

Define homeostasis.

- A condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body's internal environment. It is a dynamic condition meant to keep body functions in the narrow range compatible with maintaining life.

Define body fluids and name the three types.

- Defined as dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals inside or outside of the cell.

- Intracellular Fluid (ICF): fluid inside the cells

- Extracellular Fluid (ECF): fluid outside the cells

- Interstitial Fluid: ECF in between cells 

What are some important body fluids?

- Blood plasma: ECF within blood vessels

- Lymph: ECF within lymphatic vessels

- Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): ECF in the brain and spinal cord

- Synovial fluid: ECF in the joints

- Aqueous humor: ECF in eyes

Cellular function depends on the regulation of the composition of the ________.

- Interstitial fluid.

Control of homeostasis is constantly being challenged by what?

- Physical insults such as intense heat or lack of oxygen

- Changes in the internal environment such as a drop in blood glucose due to lack of food

- Physiological stress such as demands of work, school, etc.

What is the Feedback System? Name the three basic components.

- Cycle of events: body is monitored and re-monitored. Each monitored variable is termed a controlled condition.

- Three basic components are: receptor, control center, effector

What is a receptor?

- A body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition (such as body temperature) and sends input to the control center.

- Ex: Specialized nerve endings in the skin act as temperature receptors

The _________ sets the range of values to be maintained -- usually this is done by the brain.

- control center

- Evaluates input received from receptors and generates output command (nerve impulses, hormones, or other chemical agents)

The ________ receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition.

- effector

- Nearly every organ or tissue can serve as an effector. (Body temp drops; brain sends impulse to skeletal muscles to contract; shivering generates heat)

What is a negative feedback system? Provide an example.

- Reverses a change in a controlled condition.

- Ex: regulation of blood pressure (force exerted by blood as it presses against the walls of blood vessels)

What is a positive feedback system? Provide an example.

- Strengthens or reinforces a change in one of the body's controlled conditions

- Ex: Normal child birth (contractions)

Diagnoses of a disease is done by assessing:

- Signs and symptoms

- Medical history

- Physical examination

__________ consists of the skin and related structures (hair, nails, glands).

- Integumentary System

- Protects body, regulates temperature, and eliminates waste through sweat and other secretions

_________ consists of bones and joints.

- Skeletal System

- Provides protection and support; houses cells that will become red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

__________ consists of the named skeletal muscles, as well as smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.

- Muscular System

- Participates with the skeletal system to facilitate movement and maintain posture; generates the heat necessary for warm-blooded organisms to maintain a constant body temp

_________ consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory organs.

- Nervous System

- Senses and responds to body conditions through nerve impulses.

_________ consists of hormone-producing cells and glands scattered throughout the body.

- Endocrine System

- Regulates the body through chemical mechanisms (by releasing hormones into the blood)

_________ consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels.

- Cardiovascular System

- Carries bloods and nutrients to specific locations

- Regulates body temperature and water balance

________ consists of the lymphatic fluid, lymph nodes, and lymphocytes -- and the other associated organs of the immune system like the tonsils, spleen, and thymus gland.

- Lymphatic System

- Transports fats and proteins to the cardiovascular system

- Filters blood and protects against disease

_________ consists of the upper airways, the trachea and major bronchi, and the lungs.

- Respiratory System

- Extracts O2 and eliminates CO2

- In conjunction with the kidneys, regulates acid/base balance

_________ consists of the esophagus, stomach and intestines, and the accessory glands like the salivary glands, liver, and gallbladder.

- Digestive System

- Accomplishes the physical and chemical breakdown of food and elimination of waste.

_________ consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

- Urinary System

- Involved in the collection and excretion of waste products in urine, and the regulation of fluid, electrolyte, and acid/base balance

_________ consists of the ovaries, uterus and vagina in the female, and the testes and penis of the male (along with associated organs and glands in both sexes).

- Reproduction System

- Reproduction of an individual or organism

The systems of the body may appear to be separate and distinct, but the maintenance of most body functions requires the _________ of many systems working together.

- integration

- Ex: body temperature regulation is done by the muscular, cardiovascular, nervous, and integumentary systems working together

Define the directional terms:

1. Superior

2. Inferior

1. Above, top, toward head

2. Below, bottom, away from head

Define the directional terms:

1. Anterior (ventral) 

2. Posterior (dorsal)

1. Toward the front

2. Toward the back

Define the directional terms:

1. Medial

2. Lateral

3. Intermediate

1. Toward the midline

2. Away from midline

3. Between the above two

Define the directional terms:

1. Proximal

2. Distal

1. Nearest to the origination

2. Farther from origination

Define the directional terms:

1. Ipsilateral

2. Contralateral

1. Same side of the body

2. Opposite side of the body

Define the directional terms:

1. Superficial

2. Deep

1. Towards the surface

2. Towards the core of the body

Define the descriptive terms:

1. Visceral

2. Parietal

1. Pertaining to a covering over an organ

2. Pertaining to a covering against a cavity wall

Define the regional names: 

1. Cranial

2. Cervical

3. Cubital

4. Carpal

1. Skull

2. Neck

3. Elbow

4. Wrist

Define the regional names: 

1. Pateller

2. Orbital

3. Thoracic

4. Inguinal

1. Front of knee

2. Eye

3. Chest

4. Groin

Define the regional names: 

1. Metacarpal

2. Plantar

3. Buccal

4. Axillary

1. Hand/palm

2. Sole of foot

3. Cheek

4. Armpit

Define the regional names: 

1. Femoral

2. Gluteal

3. Tarsal

4. Digital or Phalangeal

1. Thigh

2. Buttock

3. Ankle

4. Toes or Fingers

What are body planes? What are the three major planes?

- Imaginary flat surfaces that separate the body or body part into portions.

- Saggital (midline)

- Transverse (horizontal)

- Frontal (coronal)

_________ divide the body into left and right sides.

- Sagittal planes

- There is only one midsagittal plane, and it divides the body into two equal, mirror-halves.

- There are an infinite number of parasagittal planes to the right and left of the midsagittal that divide the body into unequal halves.

_________ divide the body (or and organ) into anterior (front) or posterior (back) portions.

- Frontal or coronal planes

_________ (also called cross-sectional or horizontal planes) divide the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.

- Transverse planes

The body can also divide into an infinite number of _________ that pass through the body or organ at an angle.

- oblique planes

The brain and spinal cord develop in the _________. The remaining body organs are found in the _________.

- dorsal cavity

- ventral body cavity

(both dorsal and ventral cavities have subdivisions)

1. _________ is formed by the cranial bones and protects the brain.

2. _________ is formed by bones of vertebral column and contains the spinal cord.

3. _________ are layers of protective tissue that line the two above cavities.

1. Cranial cavity

2. Vertebral cavity

3. Meninges

_________ is formed by the sternum, ribs, and the thoracic portion of the bony vertebral column.

- Thoracic cavity

- Also called chest cavity

- Stabilized by the internal and external muscle of the chest

1. _________ is located in the central part of the thoracic cavity.

2. _________ are two fluid-filled spaces that surround each lung.

1. Mediastinal cavity

2. Pleural cavities

_________ is located within the middle part of the mediastinal cavity in the thoracic cavity (like a set of Russian nesting dolls of decreasing size).

- Pericardial cavity

- fluid-filled space that surrounds the heart

The _________ is a powerful skeletal muscle that divides the thorax (thoracic cavity) from the abdomen (abdominal cavity).

- Diaphragm

How many abdominopelvic quadrants are there? How many regions? What are they centered around?

- 4 quadrants

- 9 regions

- Centered around umbilicus (belly button)

Abdominopelvic quadrants and regions; vertical and horizontal lines pass through the _________. Identify each quadrant.

- umbilicus

- RUQ (liver), LUQ (spleen and left kidney)

- RLQ (appendix), LLQ (left ovary)

Dividing the abdomen and pelvis into regions is done using a _________. It is a little more complex, but is more specific.

- Tic-Tac-Toe grid

Name all 9 abdominal regions.

(from anterior view, starting top left to right)

1. Right Hypochondriac Region

2. Epigastric Region

3. Left Hypochondriac Region

4. Right Lumbar Region

5. Umbilical Region

6. Left Lumbar Region

7. Right Inguinal Region

8. Hypogastric Region

9. Left Inguinal Region

1. What is the name of the two vertical lines used in abdominal regions?

2. What are the two horizontal lines? (top to bottom)

3. What are the two lines used in abdominal quadrants?

1. Midclavicular lines

2. Subcostal line, Transtubercular line

3. Median line (vertical), Transumbilical line (horizontal)

_________ is done using X-rays to produce an image of interior structures. They are inexpensive and quick.

- Radiography

- Hollow structures appear black or grey

- Do not pass easily through dense structure (bone)

_________ is done using extremely powerful magnetic field. It is a safe procedure but cannot be used on patients containing metal.

- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

- Used for differentiating normal and abnormal tissues (tumors, brain abnormalities, blood flood)

_________ are done using a computer to organize x-rays to form a 3D image. It is used to visualize soft tissue in more detail than conventional radiography.

- Computed Tomography (CT Scan)

_________ are used to inspect different aspects of the body. Name and describe the three types.

- Noninvasive Diagnostic Techniques

- Palpation: gently touching body surfaces with hands

- Auscultation: listening to body sounds (stethoscope)

- Percussion: tapping on the body surface with fingertips and listening to echoes