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EDUCATED GUESS
tentative statements of the expected relationship between 2 or more variables
directional statement that is testable, clear and consise statement of what you think
can be generated from a theory |
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a model used to describe observations or used to simplify the complexity of the world
all models are wrong but some are more useful than others
explains relationships among phenomena
suggests implications for further research
can generate a hypothesis from a theory |
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| there is a significant positive relationship between self-concept and math achievement |
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quantitative design
non experimental
simple descriptive information about the frequency or amount of something
ex. census |
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quantitative design
non experimental
descriptions of the differences between groups
2 groups and 1 variable |
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quantitative design
non experimental
descriptions of the relationships between or among variables
1 group and 2 variables |
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| quasi experimental design |
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Definition
quantitative design
experimental
non-random assignment of subjects to groups
ex. if you split the room in half to create 2 groups |
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quantitative design
experimental
random assignment of subjects to groups
ex. random number table |
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establishes a casual relationship
manipulates 1 variable to see its effect on another variable |
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| describes current status of variable or the relationships other than casual among variables |
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use words or concepts to define a variable
ex. achievement: whata one has learned from formal instruction |
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in measurable terms
ex. score on an IQ test
"indication of the meaning of a varible through the specification of the manner by which it is measured" |
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| subset of a population that i'm collecting data from |
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group of individuals that you wnat to conclude something about
to whom results can be generalized |
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Definition
categorical:
nominal
ordinal
continuous:
interval
ratio
tells what statistics can be run and what type of graph to use (how data is represented) |
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categories that are non ordered
ex. race, gender, religion |
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ordered categories
ex. grade level, finishing position in a race |
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equal intervals
can subtract, can't divide
ex. temperature in celsius, IQ |
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Definition
equal intervals and has an absolute zero
can subtract, can divide
ex. height, wieght, age, time |
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typical scores
mode: most frequently occuring
median: middle number, not sensitive to outlier
mean: average, sensitive to outlier |
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Definition
amount of dispersion of data between 2 scores/how different the scores are
range: diff between highest and lowest score
standard deviation: average distance of the scores from the mean |
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Definition
any unuals score
needs to be investigated or explained
don't exclude it |
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| types of descriptive statistics |
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Definition
central tendency
variability |
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Definition
number between 1 and -1 that indicates the direction and strength of the relationship between 2 variables
sensitive to outliers so check if its actually reasonable to use |
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when one variable increases, the other variable decreases
or
when one variable decreases, the other variable increases |
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when one variable increases, the other variable increases
or
when one variable decreases, the other variable decreases |
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Term
| characteristic shapes of correlations |
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Definition
cloud= 0
football= .5
corn= .75
straigh line= 1 |
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Definition
teh extent to which our inferences are appropriate, meaningful, and useful
the interpretation of results
subjective/involves evaluative judgement |
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Definition
consistency of measurement/ extent to which our scores are free from error
measured by consistency
necessary but insufficient condition for validity
ex. scale used on a carpet is not reliable because the results wouldn't be consistent when you put it on a hard floor |
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the difference between the true result and the observed result can be attributed to using samples rather than populations
can be estimated
to reduce sampling error increase the size of the sample
no sampling error in a census
INEVITABLE |
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Term
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Definition
the difference between the observed and true results that is attributed to the sampling mistakes of the researcher
ex. sampling the first row of a class
MISTAKE |
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Term
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Definition
1.personal experience
-own observations aren't accurate
-inefficient
-people have different experiences of the same situation
-need to put your own experiences away
2.tradition
-ex. slavery, women can't vote
-childrearing behaviors
3.authority
-can be wrong
4.research
-refutability of knowledge claims
-benefits are acessable things |
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"failure of human reasoning is confusing correlation with causality" -Steven J. Goule
corrlation doesn't mean causation
ex. shoe size related to reading level
(just because there is a correlation between shoe size and reading level doesn't mean a bigger shoe size causes and increase in your reading level
you establish a causal relationship thru an experiment
causation has correlation |
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Term
| difference between common and scientific theory |
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Definition
common: doesn't have hypothesis testing
ex. theory of intellegence
scientific: has hypothesis testing
ex. theory of evolution
theory: model to explain the complexity of the world
-can be changed and modifies |
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Term
| reasons for conducting a lit. review |
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Definition
-relate previous research to current problem investigated
-helps to refine problem
-helps to develop significance of problem
-helps to identify methods for conducting research
-helps to identify contradictory findings
-helps to develop specific research hypothesis
-to learn new information |
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Term
| required elements of a qualitative research question |
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Definition
| subjects, setting, phenomenon |
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Term
| required elements of a qualitative research question |
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Definition
| subjects, setting, phenomenon |
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| required elements for a quantitative research question |
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Definition
| subjects, variables, relationship |
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Term
| similarities between quan. and qual. research |
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Definition
-both systematic approaches to understand a natural phenomenon
-standards for conducting and reporting research
-subject to review by IRB
-conclusions are always tenative
-both involve lit reviews to understand and build upon what is known |
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Term
| differences between quan. and qual. research |
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Definition
Quan
-experimental
-hard data
-operationalized
-controlled
-agriculture and psychology
-structured
-specific
-large, random, stratified
-numbers, measurements
-surveys
-short-term
-statistical
Qual
-naturalistic
-ethnographic
-case study
-understanding
-anthropology
-capture natural behavior
-flexible
-general
-small
-non representative
-documents
-observation
-trusting
-ongoing |
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Term
| goals and strategies for qualitative sampling |
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Definition
goal: to get the most informed sample
strategy:
-typical case--representative participant
-extreme case--unique participant
-max variation--participants that represent extreme cases
-snowball--recommendations from other participants
-critical case--most important participants related to the phenonmenon |
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Term
| goals and strategies for quantitative sampling |
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Definition
goal: get the most representative sample of the population
strategies:
-simple random
-systematic
-stratified (disproportional and proportional)
-cluster |
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Term
| how to calculate and interpret z-scores |
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Definition
standarized values based on...
z= (value - mean)/ standard deviation
a z-score has a mean of 0 and a sd of 1
you interpret it by where on the bell shaped curve relative to all other values are you
how many SD are you above or below the mean |
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Term
| characteristics of a normal distribution |
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Definition
tail on left is negatively skewed
tail on right is positively skewed
bell shaped curve/symmetric
68, 95, 99.7% of all scores are respectively within 1, 2, and 3 SD's |
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Term
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Definition
Institutional Review Board
1.autonomy: allows individual freedom of choice and action
ex. consent form
2.beneficence: protect subjects from harm/minimize risks/maximize benefits
weigh pros and cons
3.justice: ensures all participants recieve benefits
ex. try for all different kinds of participants (diverse) selects subjects so you can generalize |
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Term
| strategies to improve reliability observations |
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Definition
-target specific behaviors
-use low inference measures
-provide training
-use multiple observers
-strive for inter-related scores
-observers are blind to expected outcomes |
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Term
| 3 factors that contribute to reliability of measurement & examples |
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Definition
1.instrument used ex. home scale vs doctors scale
2.how well the instrument is used/technique ex.trained professional or your mom with calibers
3.what you measure ex. height/weight
-has physical, cognitive, affective aspects |
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Term
| options for collecting data |
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Definition
-scales (likert)
-semantic differential (1 to 5, interesting to boring)
-checklists
-ranked items |
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Definition
| extent to which you contribute your successes and failure to your own actions |
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Term
| why are using voluteers a bad idea? |
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Definition
-usually better educated than non voluteers
-tend to have higher SES
-more sociable
-more arousal seeking
-more unconventional |
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