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| the predominance of two superpowers, the U.S. and the USSR, during the cold war. |
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| “…emerged as the dominant Soviet leader after the death of Stalin. Sharp tongued, volatile, boastful, he announced that the Soviets would abandon their revolutionary principles only “when shrimp learn to whistle” and pledged that the Soviets would “bury” Western capitalism”. Rejected “inevitability of war” though and pursued “peaceful coexistence”. |
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| ": After the eventful year of 1956 (Suez, Poland, Hungarian Uprising) the Soviet Union began to talk about "peaceful coexistence" with the United States. By the end of the '50s, several Western leaders had visited Moscow and Khrushchev had toured the U.S. This new understanding was supposed to be cemented in 1960 with the Paris Summit Conference - but this was marred by the U-2 incident that preceded it. Eisenhower would not apologize and relations deteriorated thereafter. |
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| treaty that took place in 1959 b/w the Soviets and the U.S. ; the second of two peaceful treaties b/w the two powers, the other occurring in 1955 in Geneva; at Camp David, Nikita Khrushchev and president Eisenhower spoke of peaceful coexistence, and if possible, mutual disarmament; this friendly diplomacy would come to a halt when Eisenhower and Khrushchev had a falling out in Paris over the U-2 incident; the Berlin Crisis was also a factor in the disagreement b/w the two leaders. |
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| downing of U.S. spy plane over Soviet Union – pilot survived and Soviets therefore had proof that, contrary to U.S. assertions, spying was taking place. |
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In 1957 Eisenhower warned that, because of economic and political instability, the Middle East was vulnerable to Communist infiltration. Offered nations there:
1)economic and military aid; 2) armed assistance, upon request, to repel open Communist aggression.
This Doctrine was welcomed by Lebanon and Saudi Arabia but denounced by Egypt and Syria as American plot to dominate the world. Used once in '58 when American troops went into Lebanon and protected govt against Egyptian rebels. |
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| during the Kennedy administration (1961-1963), JFK addressed U.S. problems with the USSR frequently; one of his notable pledges was the "flexible response" policy, where US and its NATO counterparts decided that they would meet any aggression with conventional weaponry before resorting to nuclear arms. |
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| Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile: in 1958, roughly a year after the Space Age had begun and Sputnik and Explorer I had been put into orbit, the Soviets began producing ICBM's; the capabilities of this new technology were astounding, allowing nuclear warheads to target areas thousands of miles away; the US soon began producing ICBM's, causing a feeling of uneasiness to spread around the world; de Gaulle of France had misgivings about the conflict, seeing it as a struggle b/w powers, not an ideological conflict. |
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1961 CIA planned attempt using Cuban exiles to topple Fidel Castro. Kennedy
admin lost its nerve and abandoned the exiles as soon as they were put ashore at the Bay of Pigs on Cuba. This doomed the invasion, and the exiles were quickly captured, to be ransomed later for $60million. Triumph for Castro and humiliation for U.S. Freed Castro to build communist society. Supported by the Soviets. Revolutionary totalitarianism had come to the Americas. It heightened tensions in the Cold War. |
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| Geneva conference of 1954 |
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| Conference to settle Indochina conflict. All the major power involved but no satisfactory conclusion. Agreements were between armed forces of France (imperial power) and the Viet Minh. Provided for division of Vietnam at the 17th parallel of latitude. To be temporary border. By 1956 elections were to be held to reunify the country. Viet Minh were in charge in Hanoi (North) and French in (South). U.S. not happy with arrangement and promoted SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (Asian equivalent of NATO) because fear of spread of Communism. |
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| Gulf of Tonkin Resolution |
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After August 1964 attack on American ship in Gulf of Tonkin, U.S.
began bombing of North Viet Nam. |
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January 1968 - Communist major offensive using conventional weapons on
major cities --failed militarily but psychologically tipped balance in favor of anti-war movement in U.S. Protests reached crescendo in 1968. Govt leaders lost heart and Johnson decided not to run for re-election. |
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| took place in 1972; American diplomacy under Nixon, particularly the US alliance with China, put pressure on the Soviets to pursue peaceful relations with the USA; therefore, Nixon and the Soviets reestablished the goal of peaceful coexistence and pushed for reduction of anti-missile defense system and a ceiling (maximum) for production of offensive weapons; treaty did not halt the arms race, but it reduced tension on both sides. |
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| Thru much of the 1970's this characterized the U.S.-Soviet Union relationship. Even tho' Soviet Union still supporting North Viet Nam, it was receptive to Nixon's overtures towards better understanding. Agreements on trade and mutual reduction of strategic arms were concluded. Nevertheless, Soviet Union continued to spend heavily on defense - damaging the consumer sectors of its economy. |
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| During Gerald Ford's presidency the U.S. and the Soviet Union both signed the Helsinki Accords, recognizing the Soviet sphere of influence in eastern Europe. The signers of the accords also committed themselves to recognize and protect the human rights of their citizens - signed in 1975. In the Carter Administration that followed, the attempt to make Soviet Union comply with this commitment led to the cooling of relations between the two superpowers. |
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| Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; formed in 1960; oil had become the major source of energy in the West; oil companies, mostly owned by Americans, controlled oil prices and production; since the western economies depended on oil at a cheap price, fourteen countries from Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East formed OPEC to gain more power and influence over oil production and prices; the formation of OPEC created an "oil issue," ultimately leading to a huge economic crisis all over the world in the mid-1970's. |
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| ": combination of stagnation and inflation worldwide caused by a severe recession beginning in 1974 and inflation triggered by the oil crisis. Caused a problem for governments - to deal with inflation or unemployment? Many, such as Margaret Thatcher, dealt with inflation according to the Keynesian theory. Consequently, unemployment grew. |
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| : economic growth was seen as dependent on stimulation of production, the "supply" side of the market, rather than consumption, the "demand" side. If industrialists were given incentives to invest in new businesses then the results would "trickle down" for everyone's benefit. Trickle down approach was enacted by both Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan. |
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| : leader of the British Conservative party, prime minister in 1979, first woman prime minister in major Western country, led campaign against welfare state (joined in this by Ronald Reagan). This included curbing govt expenditures for social measures, encouraging private enterprise, putting restraints on strikes and union efforts to interfere with technological innovation. Practiced the "trickle down" theory. Cut govt expenditures, reduced imports, and resisted trade union wage demands. Focus shifted to investment, productivity and economic growth. She curtailed the power of the unions, returned to private enterprise 1/3 nationalized industries, made easy credit available for business and home buyers. Highest economic growth rate in Europe was achieved in this way. Unemployment remained high however. When economic growth slowed and the stimulus of privatization and deregulation wore off, she introduced new fiscal (budgetary) measures that added to the list of resentments. Lower classes felt the "pinch" most. She fell from leadership of her Conservative Party in 1990 and was replaced as leader of the Party and as Prime Minister by John Major. |
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| Conservative party Member of Parliament (MP) who replaced Margaret Thatcher as leader of the party and therefore as Prime Minister in 1990. Major had to deal with a new recession that set in after 1990 (in part caused by the economic and financial side-effects of German Reunification). The pound was weakened and unemployment grew in Britain. |
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| Labour Party in Britain in the 1990s |
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| : under new leadership in 1990s, Labour abandoned its older ideas of class struggle and increasingly attracted a broad range of middle class support. It continued to challenge the Conservative Party and argued that Thatcher’s policies had favored the rich and rendered British society less equitable. In effect, the Labour party is moving more toward the center on the political spectrum. |
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| : a political moderate who took leadership of the New Labour in the 1990s and eventually helped the Labour party win in parliamentary elections in 1997 – thus becoming Prime Minister – first Labour PM since 1979. Continues in that position to the present day – though expected to step down as leader of the Labor party in 2007 before the next parliamentary election. |
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| Falkland Islands/Malvinas |
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| off the coast of S. America. Were invaded by Argentina in 1982. They were a British protectorate but Argentina claimed rights. Thatcher dispatched a small armada and thwarted the attempted takeover. Thatcher seen as tough - the Iron Lady - and the Conservatives won a sweeping majority in Parliament in the election of the following year '83. |
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| elected President in France in 1981. He was a moderate Socialist; revitalized the Socialist Party. Introduced labor reforms, nationalized large banks and some industrial corporations. Increased labor costs reduced French competitiveness abroad --> slow economic growth, trade deficits, inflation, unemployment, and weakening of franc. In 2 years abruptly changed course: halted nationalization and reforms, retrenchment, and modernization. Isolated Communists and reduced electoral strength. Economic and political dissatisfaction, unemployment, and scandals --> rout of Socialist in 1993 and return of large conservative majority. |
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| : in 1983 was prime minister in Italy. A Socialist who, with Socialist coalition, ended long tenure of Christian Democrats (more conservative). Governed for 4 years but barely distinguishable from Christian Democrats - i.e. a moderate Socialist. Govt, state-owned businesses, politicians, and political parties remained closely linked. |
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| highly popular Socialist party leader in Spain. From 1982 to the mid-1990's he headed the first left government since the Spanish Civil War. |
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| Term coined by sociologist Daniel Bell to describe the new profile of socio-economic aspects of civilization in the west. From the 1960s onwards high technology dominated production rather than coal and steel/heavy industries. Service sectors of the economy grew faster and employed more than agriculture or industry. This change in economies has had an impact on the way of living and therefore also the social structure. |
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| : A Christian Democrat (conservative) in West Germany, he became chancellor in 1982. Economic growth rose and deutschemark stayed strong. German Federal Republic most productive nation in West Europe but labor costs burdened economy and lessened competitiveness in world market. In the 1990's the costs of integrating the GDR into FRG (East with West) have burdened the economy. Also, the goal of European currency union has required all EU members to seek to eliminate govt debt. Doing so has required cutting back on some elements of welfare state. The combination of these two factors has led to higher than usual unemployment. Kohl's CDU party lost the 1998 elections to the SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY and the new chancellor was GERHARD SCHRODER who promised more social programs and liberal approach to major issues including unemployment and the environment. SCHRODER WAS THEN OVERTHROWN BY THE CDU (Christian Democratic Union) UNDER ITS NEW LEADER AND FIRST FEMALE CHANCELLOR OF GERMANY, ANGELA MERKEL. |
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| common agricultural policy |
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| Created in 1968, it stated that countries such as France and Italy would receive large subsidies for their farmers whose products were not released into the open market but rather were held to keep prices high. France, in particular, is still a nation with many smaller farms and this was a way to protect them from foreign and large corporation competition. Farmers were subsidized to produce food that was stockpiled and rotted or were even paid NOT to produce excesses. British disliked the CAP because they claimed to pay disproportionate share of European Community (EC) budget without equivalent benefits. However, French farmers were/are very organized and vocal and protecting their interests. The French government, for obvious political reasons, generally supports their position. Protesting French farmers have been known to inundate Paris and jam its streets with tractors to get attention |
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| : EC created SINGLE EUROPEAN ACT in 1987 to establish common product standards, eliminate paperwork at border crossings, remove impediments to flow of capital, make uniform tax rates, recognize professional and commercial licenses of fellow countries, and work towards a unified currency (EURODOLLAR - NOW the EURO) and banking system. |
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| Treaty of European Union signed in Maastricht in the Netherlands at the end of 1991. Unanimous approval of the (then) 12 EC governments necessary. Problems were reluctance to agree to so much loss of national control, but finally ratified in 1993 by all members with some abstaining on currency union. EC BECAME THE EUROPEAN UNION (EU). |
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| 1963, signed by USSR & USA, bans nuclear testing in atmosphere, water & outerspace -> to protect future generations from possible gene mutations. |
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| 1968, UN General Assembly, was to prevent spread of nuclear power to countries w/out it already; treaty has been largely ignored. |
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| JANUARY 1979, USSR AND USA agree to parity in strategic, or long range, nuclear missiles -> helped to achieve balance of strategic power; SALT II Treaty was later withdrawn by Carter due to the AFGHANISTAN incident(USSR supporting communist rule in Afghanistan despite strong rebel resistance). Significance of SALT II is the indication of growing public concern (IN US & USSR) over risk of nuclear war. |
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| "Mutually Assured Destruction" -> the conclusion by means of computer analysis of the probable arsenals of both sides that if USA & USSR went into nuclear war, both sides would destroy the other. The absurdity of the nuclear arms race was becoming increasingly apparent. |
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| missiles that existed solely for defensive purposes in the scenario of nuclear war, i.e. to shoot down incoming missiles. This contrasted with the idea of having nukes for mutual deterrence only. |
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| Direct communication link between the Kremlin and the White House -> to prevent accidental outbreak of nuclear warfare due to human error of some sort. Tension of stockpiling of nukes had become so great. The Hot Line was established soon after the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1963. Publics on both sides were concerned about survivability. Civil defense plans were practiced but facts about survivability were grim. |
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| From the 70s & 80s on there were predictions about the planet in wake of a nuclear war. The world super powers each had 25,000 + nuclear weapons totaling over 500,000 megatons of explosive power. If even a small fraction of the weapons were used, many cities would be destroyed and millions would be dead. Infrastructures would be so impacted that civil order would fall apart in the wake of the cataclysm. The radioactive fallout would impact most living organisms on the planet. People feared that the results of such a a nuclear disaster would endanger human survival. |
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| 1979-1989 saw the invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR under the Brezhnev Doctrine. USSR detected a weakening pro-Soviet leftist regime in Afghanistan and moved in military aid to help support it. President Jimmy Carter denounced this as a new phase of Soviet expansionism that threatened the Middle East. Afghanistan became USSR's Viet Nam; 100,000 troops fought for over eight and a half years to secure control there, but by 1989 the Soviets were forced to retreat. The Muslim guerrillas, supported with American weapons, fought fiercely and stubbornly from their mountain strongholds to ward off the Soviets. This Soviet intervention was the first of its kind outside of Eastern Europe. Jimmy Carter was worried that the USSR would use it as a stepping stone to access the world's oil supplies in the Middle East and a precedent that the US could NOT TOLERATE. He warned that such an attempt was an assault on the "vital interests of the United States" and he withdrew the US team from the 1980 Olympics that were to take place in Moscow. |
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| at time of Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, U.S. preoccupied with Iran hostage crisis – American hostages taken from embassy in Teheran by revolutionary militants. |
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| Reagan's evil empire speech |
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| delivered in 1983, this speech characterized the Soviet Union as “an evil empire” with “dark purposes.” The U.S. administration proceeded to spend more on military preparedness, including “Star Wars” and took a more assertive role in foreign policy including in Central America, the Caribbean, Libya, and the Middle East. Even repressive authoritarian regimes were propped up if they were anti-Communist. |
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