Term
| polarized, apical, basolateral |
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Definition
| A sheet of cells known as the epithelium, such as the cells that line the small the small intestines. Such cells are clearly __--that is, they contain discrete functional domains at opposite ends of the cell. The end of the cell in contact with the external environment (ex lumen of small intestines) is often called the __ side of the cell. The parts on the other side of the tight junction, including the surfaces in contact with the basal lamina, are called the __ side of the cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| The cell type that forms a more loosely organized __ __, such as might be found in the dermis of the skin. |
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Term
| basal lamina, cell wall, cell wall, rigidity, barriers, protect, attack |
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Definition
| Epithelial cells, produce a specialized extracellular matrix called a __ __. Connective tissues, produce a more loosely organized matrix that, in plants, fungi, algae, and prokaryotes, is called a __ __. All though the chemical composition of the __ __ differs considerably among these organisms, they confer __ on the cells they encase, serve as permeability __, and __ cells from physical damage, and from __ by viruses and infectious organismes. |
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Term
| tissues, organs, organ, cell-cell contact, intercellular junctions |
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Definition
| The ablility of individual cells to associate in precise patterns to form __, __ and __ systems requires that idividual cells be able to recognize, adhere to , and communicate with eachother through __-__ __ and __ __. |
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Term
| attach, transmembrane proteins |
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Definition
| Animal cells use specialized adhesion receptors to __ to one another. Many of these adhesion proteins are __ __,which means the extracellular portion of these proteins can interact with the extracellular portion of similiar proteins onthe surface of neighboring cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| Adhesive structures are not __, they can move around within the plasma membrane. |
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Term
| assemble,disassemble, endocytosis, exocytosis |
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Definition
| Cells can __ and __ adhesions in response to a variety of events. Many adhesion proteins are continuously recycled: Protein at the cell surface is internalized by __, and new protein is deposited at the surface by __. |
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Term
| signaling complexes, cytoskeletal structures |
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Definition
| Adhesion proteins serve as key sites for assembly of __ __ in cells and for dynamically assembling __ __at sites of cell adhesion. In this way cell adhesion is coordinated with other major processes, including cell signaling, cell movement, cell proliferation, and cell survival. |
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Term
| immunoglobulin superfamily, cadherins, selectins, ligand |
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Definition
| Cell-cell adhesion receptors fall into a small number of classes including: __ __ (IgSF) proteins, __, __ , and in a few cases integrins. In each case, the adhesion protein on the surface of one cell binds to the appropriate __ on the surface of a neighboring cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| In cases where such as many cadherins and immunoglobulin superfamily members, cells interact with identical molecules on the surface of the cell that they adhere to. Such interactions are said to be __ __ ("like") |
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Term
| heterophilic interactions |
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Definition
| In other cases, such as the selectins and integrins, a cell adhesion receptor on one interacts with a different molecule on the surface of the cell to which it attaches. Such interactions are said to be __ __ |
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Term
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Definition
| Many transmembrane adhesion receptors attach to the cytoskeleton by __ __, which differ depending on the class of molecule and its location within the cell. |
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Term
| immunoglobulin superfamily |
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Definition
| Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are members of the __ __ (IgSF). The founding member of this family is called the neural cell adhesion molecule (N-CAM). |
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Term
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Definition
| Proteins in this large family are categorized here because they contain domains characterized by well-organized __, that are similiar to those in the immunoglobulin subunits that constitute antibodies |
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Term
| homophilically, heterophilically |
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Definition
| CAMs such as N-CAM, on once cell interact __ with CAMs on adjacent cell via those domains. Other IgSF members interact __ wither their ligands. |
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Term
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Definition
| Other IgSF members participate in a wide range of adhesion events. In the embryonic nervous system, CAMs, sucts as N-CAM and L1-CAM are involved in the outgrouwth and bundling of __. Humans with mutations in the L1-CAM gene show defects in the corpus callosum, memtal retardation, and other defects. |
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Term
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Definition
| An important group of adhesive glycoproteins found in the membranes of most animal cells is called __. They play a crucial role in cell-cell recognition and adhesion. |
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Term
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Definition
| CAMs and cadherins can be distinguished from eachother because cadherins require __ to function. __ binds to and stabilizes the conformation of cadherins that allows them to mediate cell-cell adhesion. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cadherins are characterized by a series of structurally __ domains (or repeats) in their extracellular domain. Members of the cadherin superfamily have a widely varying numbers of these __. |
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Term
| cell surface, cytoskeleton |
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Definition
| At their cytosolic ends, cadherins associate with the cytoskeleton therby linking the __ __ to the __. These linkages differ for different types of cadherins. |
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Term
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Definition
| Different cadherins are expressed in specific __. Their regulated expression is a particularly striking feature of embryonic development and contributes to the ability of different tissues to __ from one another as embryos change their shape. |
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Term
| bundles, synaptic connections |
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Definition
| Other cadherins are involved in helping neuronal cells to form __ and to establish __ __. |
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Term
| mesenchymal, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, metastasis |
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Definition
| One particularly important event that occurs frequently in embryos is the breakdown of an epithelium into loosely organized, migratory cells called __ cells. This __-__ __ (EMT) is accompanied by changes in cadherin expression, which occurs in cancer cells and often stops the expression of cadherins which allows these cells to spread to other parts of the body known as __. |
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Term
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Definition
| Like other glycoproteins, the __ side chains of CAMs and cadherins likely affect their __ properties. |
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Term
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Definition
| Many animal and plant cells secrete carbohydrate-binding proteins called __, which promote cell-cell adhesion by binding to a specific __ or sequence of __ exposed at the outer cell surface. |
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Term
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Definition
| Because lectins usually have more than one carbohydrate-binding site they can bind to a carbohydrate group on two __ cells, therby __ the cells together. |
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Term
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Definition
| Carbohydrate recognition plays an important role during the interaction of leukocyes with endothelial cells lining blood vessels or with platelets. Cell surface glycoproteins called __ mediate these interactions. A differnt selectin is expressed by each __ __ (L-selectin on leukocytes, E-selectin on endothelial cells, P-selectin on platelets). |
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Term
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Definition
| Rolling of leukocytes is mediated by __. |
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Term
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Definition
| Prior to invading a blood vessel, __ are activated. |
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Term
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Definition
| A firmer attachment must be made by an ICAM (IgSF) protein for __ of the blood vessel (endothelium) to occur. |
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Term
|
Definition
| One especially well known example of the importance of carbohydrates at the cell surface is the determination of the human __ __ A, B, AB, and O by a specific carbohydrate side chain present on a __ of the erythrocyte plasma membrane. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ABO blood groups involves differences in carbohydrate side chains on the surface of red blood cells that can be detected by __ present in the blood, leading to __ of red blood cells and likely to the patient's death if the wrong blood type is used in transfusion. |
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Term
| GalNAc, Gal, GalNAc, Gal, none |
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Definition
| Individuals with blood type A have the amino sugar N-acetylgalctosamine (__) at the ends of this carbohydrate. Individuals with blood type B have galactos (__), instead. Individuals with blood type AB have both __ and __ , and individuals with blood type O contain __ of these terminal sugars. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Individuals with type O blood are called __ __ because their erythrocytes do not generate an immune response when transfused into individuals of any blood type. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Unicellular organisms have __ permanent association between cells. |
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Term
| tissues, organs, cell-cell junctions |
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Definition
| Multicellular organisms have specific means of joining cells in long-term associations to form __ and __. Such associations usually involve specialized modifications of the plasma membrane at the point where the two cells come together. These specialized structures are called __-__ __. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The three most common kind of cell junctions are: __ junctions, __ junctions, and __ junctions. |
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Term
| localized, integrity, stress |
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Definition
| Adhesive junctions link cells together into tissues therby enabling the cells to function as a unit. All junctions in this category anchor the cytoskeleton to the cell surface ( __ ). The resulting interconnected cytoskeletal network helps to maintain tissue __ and to withstand mechanical __. They stick like glue. |
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Term
| adherens junctions, desmosomes, intracellular attachment, cadherins |
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Definition
| The two main kinds of cell-adhesive junctions are __ __ and __. Despite structural and functional differences, adhesive junctions all contain two distinct kinds of proteins: __ __ proteins, which link the junction to the appropriate cytoskeletal filaments on the inside of the plasma membrane, and __, which protrude on the ouer surface of the membrane and bind cells to each other. |
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Term
| adherens junctions, epithelial |
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Definition
| Cadherin-mediated adhesive junctions that interact with actin are called __ __ . Especially prominent in the __ cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| Adherens junctions are points of attachment between the cell surface and the __. |
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Term
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Definition
| Many pathogens such as those responsible for several types of food poisoning, infect the body using these very same __ __ to gain entry into healthy cells. |
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Term
| Desmosomes, structural integrity, Desmosomes |
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Definition
| __ are button-like points of strong adhesion between adjacent cells in a tissue. They give tissue __ __, enabling cells to function as a unit and to resist stress. __ are especially abundant in skin, heart muscle, and the nuck of the uterus. |
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Term
| heart failure, skin defects |
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Definition
| Loss of desmosomal components can be devistating. For example, mice lacking plakoglobin die with __ __ and __ __. |
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Term
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Definition
| __ __ are used to seal spaces between cells, they function similiar to a ziploc bag and are completely __ sealed. |
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Term
|
Definition
| These tight junctions are important in intestinal cells because they must __ off the fluids that pass through the digestive tract from the __ fluids of the body. They are similarly important in the liver, pancreas, and bladder. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Tight junctions act like "__" prevent the movement of fluids, ions, and molecules between cells. In addition, tight junctions act like "__" blocking the lateral movement of lipids and proteins within the membrane. |
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Term
| outer monolayer, entirely, opposite |
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Definition
| Lipid movement is blocked in the __ __ only, but the movement of integral membrane protens is blocked __. As a result, different kinds of integral membrane proteins can be maintained in the portions of a plasma membrane on __ sides of a tight junction belt. |
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Term
| gap junction, cytoplasmic contact, electrical, chemical |
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Definition
| A __ __ is a region where the plasma membrane of two cells are aligned and brought into contact with a gap, spanned by molecular "pipelines." This provides a point of __ __ between two adjacent cells through which ions and small molecules can pass. It allows two adjacent cells to be in direct __ and __ communication with each other. |
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Term
| connexon, connexins, innexins |
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Definition
| At a gap junction, the two plasma membranes from adjacent cells are joined by tightly packed, hollow cylinders called __. In vertebrates, each connexin is a circular assembly of 6 subunits of the protein __. Invertebrates have the protein __ instead, but they appear to serve the same function. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Many different connexins are found in different __, but each one functions similarly in forming __. The assembly spans the membrane and protrudes into the space, or gap, between the two cells. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Each connexon has a hollow center that forms a very thin __ channel thorugh the membrane. It is just large enough to allow the passage of __ and __ molecules (too small for proteins, nucleic acids, and organelles). Included in this range are single sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides -- most of the molecules involved in cellular metabolism. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Gap junctions occur in most vertebrate and invertebrate cells. They are especially abundant in tissues such as __ and __, where extremely rapid communication between cells is required (e.g. electrical synapse). |
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Term
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Definition
| In heart tissue, gap junctions facilitate the flow of __ __ that causes the heart to beat. |
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Term
| neurodegenerative, skin, cataracts, deafness |
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Definition
| Disorders caused by defective gap junctions include several types of demyelinating __ diseases, various __ disorders, formation of __, and some types of __. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Tissues are not simply composed of cells. Cells interact with __ __ that are crucial for tissue structure and function. In animal cells, this extracellular matrix (ECM) takes on a remarkable variety of forms in different tissues. |
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Term
| bone, cartilage, connective tissue, basal lamina |
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Definition
| __ consists largely of a rigid extracellular matrix that contains a tiny number of interspersed cells. __ is another tissue constructed almost entirely of matrix materials, although the matrix is much more flexible than in bone. The __ __ surrounding glands and blood vessels has a relatively gelatinous extracellular matrix conatining numerous interspersed fibroblast cells. Epithelial cell produce a specialized ECM known as the __ __. |
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Term
| collagens, elastins, proteoglycans, fibronectins, laminins |
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Definition
| Despite this diversity of function, the ECM of animals cells almost always consists of the same 3 classes of molecules: 1) structural proteins such as __ and __, which give the ECM its strength and flexibility. 2) protein-polysaccharide complexes called __ that provide the matrix in which the structural molecules are embedded. 3) adhesive glycoproteins such as __ and __, which allow cells to attach to the matrix. |
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Term
| structural proteins, proteoglycans, ratio, glycoprotiens |
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Definition
| The considerable variety in the properties of the ECM in different tissues results not only from differences in the types of __ __ and the kinds of __ present but also from variations in the __ of structural proteins --collagen, most commonly-- to proteoglycans and in the kinds and amounts of adhesive __ present. |
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Term
| ECM, collagens, elastins, cell wall, cellulose |
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Definition
| Animals have an extracellular structure __ that has the structural fiber __ and __. Plants have an extracellular structure __ __ that has the structural fiber __. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The most abundant component of the ECM in animals is a large family of closely related proteins called __, which form fibers with high tensile strengh and thus account for much of the strength of the ECM. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Collagen is secreted by several types of cells in connective tissues, including __. Without collagen, cells in these and other tissues would not have sufficient adhesive strength to maintain a given form. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Two defining characteristics are shared by all collagens: their occurrences as a rigid __ __ of three intertwined polypeptide chains and their unusual __ __ composition. |
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Term
| glycine, hydroxylysine, hydroxyproline |
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Definition
| collagens are high in both the common amino acid __ and the unusual amino acids __ and __, which rarely occur in other proteins. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Collagen molecules are aligned both __ and __ to __ within the fibrils. |
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Term
| procollagen, procollagen, cell |
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Definition
| 3 α chains assemble to form a triple helix called __. At both ends of the triple-helical structure, short nonhelical sequences of amino acids prevent the fomation of of collagen fibrils, as long as the __ remains in the __. |
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Term
| procollagen peptidase, laterally |
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Definition
| Once the procollagen is secreted from the cell into the intercellular space, it is converted to collagen by __ __, an enzyme that removes the extra animo acids from both the N- and C-terminal ends of the triple helix. The resulting collagen molecules spontaneously associate to form mature collagen fibrils, which then assemble __ into fibers. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The stability of collagen fibril is reinforced by __ __ that involve the hydroxyl groups of hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine residues in the α chais |
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Term
|
Definition
| There are 15 types of collagen molecules. Type I, II, and III are the most abundant forms of collagen. Type __ makes up about 90% of the collagen in the human body. |
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Term
| elastins, elastins, glycine, proline |
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Definition
| Elasticity is provided by stretchable elastic fibers, whose principle constituent is a family of ECM proteins called __. Like collagen, __ are rich inthe amino acids __ and __. However the proline residues are hot hydroxylated, and not hydroxylysine is present. |
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Term
| covalent bonds, stretch, relax |
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Definition
| Elastin molecules are crosslinked to one another by __ __ between lysine residues. Tension on an elastin network causes the overall network to __. When the tension is released, the individual molecules __, returning to their normal, less extended conformations. |
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Term
| crosslinked, inflexible, flexible, wrinkled |
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Definition
| Over time, collagens become increassingly __ and __, and elastins are lost from tissues like skin. As a result, older people often find that their bones and joints are less __, and their skin becomes __. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The hydrated, gell like network in which the collagen and elastin fibrils of the ECM are enmeshed consists primarily of __, glycoproteins in which a large number of glycosaminoglycans are attached to a single protein molecule. |
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Term
| glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), chondroitin sulfate, keratan sulfate, hyaluronate |
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Definition
| __ ( __ ) are large carbohydrates characterized by repeating disaccharide units, for the three most common types: __ __, __ __, __. |
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Term
| hydrophobic, water, cations |
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Definition
| Because GAGs are __ molecules with many negatively charged sulfate and carboxyl groups, they attract both __ and __, therby forming the hydrated gelatinous matrix in which collagen and elastin fibrils become embedded. |
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Term
| proteoglycans, core protein |
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Definition
| Most glycosaminoglycans in the ECM are covalently bound to protein molecules to form __. Each proteoglycan consists of numerous GAG chains attached along the length of a __ __. Many types of proteoglycans can be formed by the combination of different core proteins and GAGs of varying lengths and types. Most are huge. |
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Term
| free glycosaminoglycans, hyaluronate |
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Definition
| Although most of the GAGs foud in the extracellular matrix exist only as comoponents of proteoglycans and not as __ __, __ is and exception. |
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Term
|
Definition
| In addition to its role as the backbone of the proteoglycan complex in cartilage, hyaluronate occurs as a free moleucle consisting of hundres of even thousands of repeating disaccharide units. Hyaluronate molecules have __ properties and are most abundant in places where fricion must be __, such as joints between movable bones. |
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Term
| adhesive glycoproteins, domains, macromolecules, membrane receptors |
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Definition
| Direct links between the ECM and plasma membrane are reinfroced by a family of __ __ that bind proteoglycans and collagen molecules to each other and to receptors on the membrane surface. These proteins typically have multiple __, some with binding sites for __ in the ECM and others with binding sites for __ __. |
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Term
| fibronectins, laminins, integrins |
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Definition
| The two most common kinds of adhesive glycoproteins are __ and __. Many of the membrane receptors to which these glycoproteins bind belong to a family of transmembrane proteins called __. |
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Term
| Fibronectins, soluble, insoluble, intermediate |
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Definition
| __ are a family of closely related glycoproteins in the ECM and are widely distributed in vertebrates. They occur in __ form in blood and other body fluids, as __ fibrils in the extracellular matrix, and as __ form loosely associated with cell surfaces. These different forms of the protein are generated because the RNA transcribed form the fibronectin gene is processed to generate many different mRNAs. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A fibronectin molecule consists of two very large __ subunits that are linked near their __ ends by a pair of disulfide bonds. |
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Term
| macromolecules, cell surface receptors |
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Definition
| Several of the domains bind to one or more specific kinds of __ located in the ECM or on cell surfaces, including several types of collagen, heparin, and the blood-clotting protein fibrin. Other domains recognize and bind to __ __ __. |
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Term
| arginine-glycine-aspartate, motif, integrins |
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Definition
| The receptor-binding activity of these domains has veen localized to a specific tripeptide sequence, RGD (__-__-__), which is a common __ among extracellular adhesive proteins and is recognized by various __ on the cell surface. |
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Term
| collagen, heparin, bridging, anchoring |
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Definition
| Fibronectin binds to cell surface receptors as well as to ECM components such as __ and __. It thus functions as a __ molecule that attaches cells to the ECM, and therefore has a __ role. |
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Term
| cellular movement, adhere, binding |
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Definition
| Fibronectin is also involved in __ __. For example, when migratory embyronic cells are grown on fibronectin, they __ readily to it. The pathways followed by migrating cells are rich in fibronectin, suggesting that such cells are guided by __ to fibronectin |
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Term
| musculature, vasculature, embryonic |
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Definition
| Genetically engineered mice that cannot produce fibronectin have severe defects in some cells that make the __ and the __. These defects highlight the crucial importance of fibronectin during __ development. |
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Term
| fibronectin, shape, detachment, normal, bind, malignant |
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Definition
| A possible involvement of fibronectin in cancer is suggested by the obsevation that many kinds of cancer cells do not synthesize __, with an accompanying loss of normal cell __ and __ from the ECM. If such cells are supplied with fibronectin, they often return to a more __ shape, recover their ability to __ to the ECM, and no longer appear __. |
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Term
| plasma fibronectin, promoting, fibrin, fibrin |
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Definition
| The soluble form of fibronectin present in the blood, called __ __, is involved in __ blood clotting becasuse it has several binding domains that recognize __, the blood clotting protein, and it can attach platelets to __ as the blood clot forms. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Another major adhesive glycoprotein present in the ECM is a family of proteins called __, which are conserved from simple __ to humans. |
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Term
| basal lamina, epithelial, connective tissues |
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Definition
| Unlike fibronectins, which occur widely throughout supporting tissues and body fluids, laminins are found mainly in the __ __. This thin sheet of specialized extracellular material underlies __ cells, therby separating them from __ __, and also surrounds muscle cells, fat cells, and Schwann cells that form myelin sheaths around nerve cells. |
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Term
| structural support, permeability barrier |
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Definition
| The basal lamina serves as __ __ that maintains tissue orgainzation and as a __ __ that regulates the movement of molecules as well as cells. |
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Term
|
Definition
| In the kidneys we have an extremely __ basal lamina which functions as a filter that allows small molecules but not blood proteins to move from the blood to the urine. |
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Term
| connective tissue, white blood cells, increased, migrate |
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Definition
| The basal lamina beneath epithelial cells prevents passage of underlying __ __ cells into the epithelium but permits the migration of the __ __ __ needed to fight infections. This effect of the basal lamina on cell migration is of special intrest because some cancer cells show __ binding to the basal lamina which may facilitate their movement through it and allow them to __ from one region of the body to another. |
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Term
| IV, proteoglycans, laminins, entactin, nidogen, epithelial cells, anchor |
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Definition
| All forms of basal lamina contain type __ collagen, __, __, and other glycoproteins called __, or __. Laminins are the most abundant adhesive glycoproteins in the basal lamina, and they are thought to be localized mainly on the surface of the lamina that faces the overlying __ __, where they help bind the cells to the lamina. Fibronectins are located on the other side of the lamina, where they help __ cells of the connective tissue. |
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Term
| MMPs, cofactors, MMP, high |
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Definition
| Cells can alter the properties of the basal lamina by secreting enzymes that catalyze changes in the basal lamina. One important class of such enzymes is matrix metallproteinases ( __ ). These enzymes, which require metal ions as __, degrade the ECM locally, allowing cells to pass through the ECM. This activity is important for cells such as leukocytes to invade injured tissues during inflammation, and the __ activity of invasive cancer cells such as metastatic melanoma cells, is very __. |
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Term
| polypeptides, disulfide, 3-stranded coil |
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Definition
| Laminin is a very large protein consisting of 3 large __ denoted α, β, and γ. There are several types of each of the 3 subunits, which can combine to form many types of laminin. __ bonds hold the polypeptide chains togeter in the shape of a cross, with part of the long arm wound into a _-__ __. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Like fibronectin, laminin consists of several domains that include binding sites for type IV collagen, heparin, heparan sulfate, and entactin, as well as for laminin receptor proteins on the surface of overlying cells. Its binding sites allow laminin to serve as a __ molecule that attaches cells to the __ __. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Entactin molecules have binding sites for both __ and type __ __ and are therefore thought to reinforce the binding of type IV collagen and laminin networks in the basal lamina. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Fibronectins and laminins can bind to animal cells because the plasma membranes of most cells have sepcific __ on their surfaces that recognize and bind to specific regions of the fibronectin of laminin molecule. These receptors -and those for a variety of other ECM constituents- belong to a large family of transmembrane proteins that are called __ because of their role in integrating the cytoskeleton with the ECM. |
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Term
| collagen, fibronectin, laminin |
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Definition
| Integrins are important receptors because they are the primary means by which cells bind to ECM proteins such as __, __, and __. |
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Term
| noncovalently (ionic), specificity |
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Definition
| An integrin consists of two large transmembrane polypeptides, the α and β subunits, that associate with eachother __ ( __ ). Integrins display a greater __ of glycoproteins binding than can be accounted for by the RGD sequence alone. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Integrins link the ECM and the cytoskeleton together __ by interacting with protens in the cytosol that link integrins to cytoskeletal proteins. |
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Term
| cell movement, cell attachment |
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Definition
| Integrins play important roles in regulating __ __ and __ __. Mutations in integrins lead to progressive muscular dystrophy and progressive muscul degeneration. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A key role of integrins is the ability to link the cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix, they also interact with intracellular __ __. For ex. signals such as binding growth factors that lead to MAP kinase activation can result in integrin clustering (inside out). They can also act as a receptors that activate intracellular signaling themselves (outside in). |
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