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Earliest tool of Cytologists; 200-350 nm resolution
Used dyes and stains in the 1800's
Brightfield, Phase Contrast, DIC, Flourescense, and confocal
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Invented by germans in 1932, used to try to see genes in the 50's: TEM and SEM; 0.1-0.2nm resolution
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| Inversed to energy; 400nm wavelength is high energy, 700nm wavelength is low energy; different wavelengths are affected differently by particles. |
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| Process by which 2 or more waves combining to concel one another |
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Producing a wave that is equal to the some of two combining waves
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Distance at which an image is in focus; determined by index or refraction, medium it is immersed in, and geometry of the lense; determines magnifying strength
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| light gathering power of the objective lens; half angle of the cone of light entering the lens from the specimen; determines the sharpness of the interference pattern |
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Ability to distinguish between 2 small and closely spaced objects as separate entities; influenced by wavelength of light, angular aperature and refractive index.
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| Light gathering power of the condenser lens. |
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Most basic type of light microscopy, white light shown behind specimen; both stained and unstained
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Velocity changes in phases are converted into alterations of brightness; phase plate speeds up undiffracted light
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DIC (Differrential Interference Contrast)
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Polarizers change the speed of the light that comes into the lense; shifts light
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| Immunostaining with antibodies; you can see molecules of ions within the cells |
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| Light moves electrons into an excited stage |
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| Electrons then fall to a ground state and emit photons |
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| Using tagged antibodies to target specific molecules in a cell; Green Flourencent Protein (GFP), Flourescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) |
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| Very expensive method; clearer than flourenscence, excludes out of focus light from the image |
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| Moving proteins with laser beams, move around within a cell |
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| Specimen slicer; fix sample in acids of aldehydes (Perfusion), dehydrate (Critical point dryer), embed and cut |
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| See macromolecules of different densities; negative staining=electron density stain |
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| Transmission Electron Microscope. The electrons travel through the specimen, sees density |
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| Scanning electron microscope; sees the surface of the specimen in detailed fashion |
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Made a gold (or other metal) "cast" of a membrane to see proteins
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| Process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells while passing on genetic data |
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Cycle in which a cell divides; Mitosis/meiosis, Gap 1, Synthesis, Gap 2
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase |
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| Process by which DNA replicates itself; semi-conservative, bidirectional; includes replication forks, replicons, and origins of replication |
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| DNA keeps half of it's original copy every time it replicates; proved by Meselson and Stahl during their equilibrium density centrifugation experiment with N15 and N14 (the bands) |
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| Bubbles of independently initiated DNA replication |
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| Place on DNA where replication begins; initiator proteins together= prereplication complex |
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| Origin Replication Complex; initiator proteins together |
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| Minichromosome Maintenence Proteins |
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| Continuous replication in 3'-->5' direction |
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| Okazaki fragments of replication going on opposite strand of DNA 5'-->3' direction |
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| Proofreading activity of DNA polymerase, removes improperly paired base-pairs in 3'-->5' direction |
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| Similar to econuclease, but only cleaves at the end of polynucleotide chains |
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| Single stranded Binding Protein; binds to unzipped DNA strands and hold them apart |
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| A protein/enzyme with RNA code in it; fills in gaps at the ends of replicated DNA strands |
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| DNA--> RNA; DNA makes tRNA, mRNA, rRNA and miRNA |
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| RNA--> Proteins; includes making of ribosomes, and aminocyl-tRNA |
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| Binds to amino acids to make aminoacyl-tRNA |
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| interacts with tRNA and rRNA to make functional proteins |
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| 1 amino acid spelled different ways; many diff combos |
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| Sequence of three nucleotides; non-overlapping; nearly universal; 64 codons=20 amino acids, 61 spell amino acids, 1 start, 3 stops. |
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| "upstream" part of DNA to be replicated; includes -35 sequence of TTGACA, and -10 sequence TATA box |
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| Transcription Factor; protein required for polymers to bind and initiate transcription |
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| DNA strand of the double helix that serves as the template for the coding strand |
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| nontemplate strand of a DNA double helix, which is base-paired to the template strand |
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| cao is before AUG (start) tail is after the UAG, UAA or UGA (stop) both protect boding sequences from degradation in Eukaryotes |
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| Cut out introns and paste RNA units together |
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| Made of sm and lg ribosome units; holds coded strands in translation and pulls through to make proteins in APE order; aminoacyl site, peptidyl site, exit side |
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| Written in 3'-->5' organization to bind to end mRNA |
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| (Initiation Factors) to initiate translation in bacteria |
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| (Elongation Factor) in bacteria; they bring GTP |
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| movement of mRNA across a ribosome by a distance of nucleotides bring next codon so another can be translated |
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| releases polypeptide chains from tRNA at the termination of translation. Requires GTP |
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| proteins that fold protein structures |
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| cluster of 2+ ribosomes translating mRNA simultaneously |
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| one of two groups of prokaryotes (the other being bacteria) they thrive in harsh conditions |
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| Characterized by absense of nucleus and organelles |
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| Living organism; true nucleus and organelles |
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| moves peptide chain in translation |
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