Term
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Definition
| Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Contain a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit (Saccharo is Greek for sugar) |
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Term
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Definition
| Consist of two monosaccharide units linked together by a covalent bond |
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Term
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Definition
| Contain from 3 to 10 monosaccharide units |
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Term
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Definition
| Contain very long chains of (100's-1,000's) of polysaccharide units, which may be either in straight or branched chains |
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Term
| Largest source of glycogen storage |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| C3H6O3 The simplest carb, exist in two isomeric forms that are mirror images of each other. It is also chiral |
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Term
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Definition
| Isomeric forms of a molecule that are mirror images of each other |
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Term
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Definition
| Molecule whose mirror image cannot be superimposed on it. (Due to "handedness") |
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Term
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Definition
| The two mirror image forms of glyceraldehyde |
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Term
| Levo or "L" form of a molecule |
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Definition
| When the hydroxy (OH) group is on the left side |
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Term
| Dextro or "D" form of a molecule |
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Definition
| When the hydroxy (OH) group is on the right side |
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Term
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Definition
| Can be superimposed on their mirror images (drinking glasses, cubes) |
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Term
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Definition
| Any atom which is connected to four different groups (It will have two nonsuperimposable mirror images) |
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Term
| Many organic compounds, including carbs, contain more than 1 what? |
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Definition
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Term
| A carbon can't be chiral if it has what attached to it? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Convenient way to represent mirror images in two dimensions. They have the carbonyl group near or at the top and the last achiral CH2OH at the bottom. |
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Term
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Definition
| Look at the chiral carbon farthest from the carbonyl group: if the hydroxy group points to the right when the carbonyl is "up" it;s the D-isomer, and when the hydroxy group points to the left, it is the L-isomer. |
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Term
| Class of monosaccharide with 3 carbons |
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Definition
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Term
| Class of monosaccharide with 4 carbons |
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Definition
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Term
| Class of monosaccharide with 5 carbons |
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Definition
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Term
| Class of monosaccharide with 6 carbons |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Prefix that indicates the molecule is an aldehyde |
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Term
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Definition
| Prefix that indicates the molecule is a ketone |
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Term
| Aldehyde group will have what elements? |
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Definition
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Term
| Ketone group will have what elements? |
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Definition
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Term
| Memorize D-ribose Fischer Projection |
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Definition
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Term
| Memorize the Fischer Projections of D-glucose and D-galactose |
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Definition
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Term
| Memorize D-Fructose Fischer Projection |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Last chiral carbon that is furthest from the functional group |
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Term
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Definition
| Formed when an alcochol group adds into the carbonyl group in a monosaccharide. Makes a stable cyclic hemiacetal or hemiketal. |
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Term
| Beta Form of pyranose ring |
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Definition
| Has the hydroxyl (OH) group above the plane. (B=belly up) |
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Term
| Aplha form of pyranose ring |
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Definition
| Has the hydroxyl (OH) group below the plane |
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Term
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Definition
| Two new stereoisomers of pyranose that result from a carbon chain going into a cyclic formation |
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Term
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Definition
| The new stereocenter or first chiral carbon |
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Term
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Definition
| Formed when fructose closes on itself. Has 5 sides and looks like a pentagon |
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Term
| The CH2OH (specifically OH) is always up for D-saccharides |
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Definition
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Term
| Aldehydes and ketones that have an OH group on the carbon next to the carbonyl group react with a basic solution of Cu2+ (Benedict's reagent) to form what? |
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Definition
| A red-orange precipitate of copper(I) oxide (Cu2O) |
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Term
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Definition
| A basic solution of Cu2+ that reacts with aldehydes and ketones that have an OH group on the carbon next to the carbonyl group to form a precipitate of copper (I) oxide |
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Term
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Definition
| Sugars that undergo a reaction with Cu2+ to form an oxidation production and copper (I) oxide (Cu2O) |
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Term
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Definition
| Reducing sugar + Cu2+ --> oxidation product + Cu20 |
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Term
| Be able to identify the important monosaccharides |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Known as dextrose and blood sugar. Metabolized by the body for energy |
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Term
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Definition
| Known as levulose and fruit sugar. Sweetest of the monosaccharides. Used to sweeten foods |
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Term
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Definition
| Forms the backbone of ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
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Term
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Definition
| Incorporated with glucose into lactose |
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Term
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Definition
| Forms the sugar backbone of deoxyribosenucleic acid (DNA) |
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Term
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Definition
| Two monosaccharides linked together through a glycosidic linkage |
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Term
| Be able to distinguish between 1-4 bond and 1-6 bond |
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Definition
In a 1-4 bond the monosaccharides will be next to each other
In a 1-6 bond the monosaccharides will appear to be on top of each other
Number the carbon in the ring from left to right. |
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Term
| Lactose is composed of what? |
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Definition
| A Beta D-galactose molecule linked to an Alpha D-glucose molecule. |
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Term
| Lactose has what type of glycosidic linkage? |
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Definition
| Beta(1-->4) glycosidic linkage |
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Term
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Definition
| Known as milk sugar. It is digested by the enzyme lactase |
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Term
| Sucrose is composed of what? |
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Definition
| Alpha-D-glucose (a hexose) and Beta D-fructose (a pentose) |
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Term
| Sucrose has what type of glycosidic linkage? |
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Definition
| Alpha-1 --> Beta-2 glycosidic linkage |
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Term
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Definition
| Known as table sugar. Not a reducing sugar because both anomeric carbons of glucose and fructose are tied together in the glycosidic linkage; thus neither ring can open. Found in sugar cane, sugar beets, maple syrup |
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Term
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Definition
| A flavoring agent produced by the hydrolysis of sucrose under acidic conditions, which breaks it apart into glucose and fructose |
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Term
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Definition
| Contain from 3 to 10 monosaccharide units |
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Term
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Definition
| Contain hundreds or thousands of carbohydrate units |
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Term
| Why are polysaccharides not reducing sugars? |
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Definition
| Since the anomeric carbons are connected through glycosidic linkages |
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Term
| What are three kinds of polysaccharides which are all polymers of glucose? |
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Definition
| Starch, glycogen and cellulose |
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Term
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Definition
| A polymer consisting of D-glucose units |
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Term
| Starches and other glucose polymers have what relationship with water? |
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Definition
| They are insoluble in water because of the high molecular weight. They may form thick colloidal suspensions with water |
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Term
| All starch consists of long, unbranched chains of what? |
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Definition
| Glucose connected by Alpha (1->4) glycosidic linkages |
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Term
| What are the two forms of starch? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Consists of long, unbranched chains of glucose (1000-2000 molecules) connected by Alpha (1->4) glycosidic linkages |
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Term
| Amylose forms what? Which can do what to iodine? |
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Definition
| Amylose can form helices (coils) which can trap molecules of iodine forming a deep blue-purple color. |
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Term
| What is a test for the presence of starch? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Long chains of glucose (up to 10^15 molecules) connected by Alpha (1->6) glycosidic linkages, with Alpha (1->6) branches every 24 to 30 glucose units along the chain |
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Term
| The majority of starch in plants is in the form of what? |
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Definition
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Term
| Alpha (1->4) glycosidic linkages cause |
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Definition
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Term
| Alpha (1->6) glycosidic linkages cause |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Known as animal starch. Structurally similar to amylopectin, containing both Alpha (1->4) glycosidic linkages and Alpha (1->6) glycosidic linkages (branch points) |
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Term
| Glyocgen is even more highly branched than amylopectin, containing how many branches? |
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Definition
| Glycogen has branches 8 to 12 glucose units |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What breaks down glycogen? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Transformation of chemical energy in food into chemical energy cells can use: ATP
C6H12O6 +6O2 -> 6O2 + 6H2O |
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Term
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Definition
| Series of reactions which break 6-carbon glucose into two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules |
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Term
| Where does glycolysis begin? |
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Definition
| Inside the cytoplasm of cells |
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Term
| Glycolysis begins with what step? |
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Definition
| Glucose being phosphorlyated by hexokinase and therefore changing into glucose-6-phosphate. Requires the breakdown of one ATP molecule (ATP->ADP) |
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Term
| Glucose-6-phosphate has two fates |
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Definition
| Continue on with glycolysis or it can be used in the Embden Meyerhoff pathway |
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Term
| Kinases phosphorylated molecules, but require what cofactor? |
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Definition
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Term
| In the last step of glycolysis what happens? |
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Definition
| Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) is acted on by pyrivate kinase to produce pyruvate. This step creates ATP (ADP->ATP) |
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Term
| Glycolysis requires what how much ATP for every one glucose? |
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Definition
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Term
| Glycolysis produces how many ATP molecules for every one glucose? |
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Definition
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Term
| Glycolysis yields a net gain of how much ATP for every one glucose |
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Definition
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Term
| Glycolysis yields how much NADH per glucose molecule? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the two fates of pyruvate after glycolysis? |
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Definition
1. Anaerobic cellular respiration (Fermention) which occurs in the cytoplasm
2. Aerobic cellular respiration (Kreb's cycle and Electron transport chain) which occurs in the mitochondria |
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Term
| Anaerobic cellular respiration results in |
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Definition
No more ATP
Used only to regenerate NAD+ so it can work in glycolysis |
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Term
| End products of anaerobic cellular respiration |
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Definition
Ethanol and CO2 (in fungi)
Lactic acid (in muscles) |
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Term
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Definition
Aerobic cellular respiration that completes the breakdown of glucose
Breaks down pyruvate and convert it to CO2 and H2O. |
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Term
| How much ATP is produced during the Kreb's cycle? |
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Definition
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Term
| Preparatory reaction for Kreb's cycle |
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Definition
| Prior to the start if the Kreb's cycle Pyruvate must be converted to Acetyl-CoA |
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Term
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Definition
| High energy electrons to push hydrogen ions out of the mitochondroa creates a conc gradient. Hydrogens diffuse back into cell via ATP sythnase complex. allowing for oxidative phosphorylation and O2 serving as a terminal electron acceptor and becoming water. |
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Term
| Purpose of the hexose monophosphate shunt |
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Definition
Anabolic pathway that
creates NADPH
Creates a pentose sugar from glucose-6-phosphate |
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Term
| Oxidative phase of the hexose monophosphate shunt |
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Definition
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Term
| Non-oxidative phase of the hexose monophosphate shunt |
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Definition
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Term
| Hexose monophosphate shunt produces how many NADPH's per glucose-6-phosphate? |
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Definition
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Term
| Glucose 6 phosphate is acted on by what enzyme in the first step of the hexose monophosphate shunt |
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Definition
| Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase |
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Term
| What is the end product of the hexose monophosphate shunt? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the rate limiting step of the hexose monophosphate shunt? |
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Definition
| Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase |
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Term
| Basic hexose monophosphate shunt explanation |
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Definition
| Glutathione reduces harmful oxidants and converts them into water. Because of this process, glutathione itself becomes oxidized. NADPH needs to act as glutathione reductase to help glutathione return to its normal reduced state |
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Term
| Sugar shuffling stage of the hexose monophosphate shunt |
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Definition
| Enzymatically driven way of converting Ribulose-5-phosphate into other sugars. |
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Term
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Definition
Cleavage of glycogen into individual glucose units
Glycogen is cleaved at the non-reducing end to create glucose-1-phosphophate which is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate and has 3 seprate fates |
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Term
| Glucose acted on by hexokinase creates what? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Build up of glucose
Enzyme driven process that begins with glucose-1-phosphate and forms UDP-glucose which is added together by glycoge synthase causing chain elongation. Glycogen branching enzyme then causes branching |
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Term
| Cori cycle (Lactic acid cycle) |
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Definition
| Involves cycling lactate from muscular anaerobic metabolism to glucose for recycling |
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Term
| Muscles deposit lactate which is then sent to the liver and |
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Definition
| Recycled into glucose which is used by the muscles |
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Term
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Definition
| Creation of glucose from non carb sources |
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Term
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Definition
| Liver and msucles store glycogen |
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Term
| Carbohydrate catabolism for dietary carbs. Dietary carbs are broken down how? |
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Definition
| Breaks down via mouth and salivary amylase (Breaks down amylose/starch) into dextrins/maltose |
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Term
| Carbohydrate catabolism for dietary carbs. Dextrins/Maltose is broken down how? |
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Definition
| Stomach/intestines combined with pancreatic amylase into monosaccharides |
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Term
| Carbohydrate catabolism for dietary carbs. Monosaccharides are broken down how? |
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Definition
| They are broken down by absorption into the intestinal mucosa and then delivered to the liver |
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Term
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Definition
Direct energy usage by cells
Glucose storage
Formation of keto-acids, amino acids or lipids |
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Term
| Glycogen is stored where? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Glucose uptake into cells is mediated by what? What are two types of cells that don't need ____ to perform glucose uptake? |
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Definition
Insulin
Brain cells and circulating blood cells |
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Term
| (Insulin action) Cells have a lipid membrane that is not permeable to what? |
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Definition
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Term
| Mechanism of insulin action |
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Definition
Insulin binds with the insulin receptor
Causes a signal for GLUT to go to membrane and build channels
Glucose passes through channels
Once enough glucose has passed thru, the channels break down and GLUT moves back into the intracellular fluid |
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Term
| Organs involved in glucose regulation |
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Definition
Liver
Pancreas
Anterior pituitary gland
Adrenal gland
Thyroid gland |
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Term
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Definition
| Releases insulin (decreased blood glucose) and glucagon (increases blood glucose) |
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Term
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Definition
| Releases hormones that help with blood glucose maintenance |
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Term
|
Definition
| Releases cortisol that plays a role in glucose metabolism |
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Term
|
Definition
| Reduces thyroid hormone. Glucose maintenance are a secondary function of the hormone. |
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Term
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What part of the body detects blood glucose concentration? |
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Definition
| Clusters of cells within the pancreas known as islets. |
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Term
| Glucagon is excreted from what type of cell? |
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Definition
| Alpha cells of the pancreas |
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Term
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Definition
| Hormone that binds with hepatic cells to signal the increased production of enzymes that break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood |
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Term
| Increase in glucagon will cause |
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Definition
Glycogenolysis
Gluconeogenesis
Breakdown of fatty acids and proteins
(This causes glucose levels to rise to normal) |
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Term
| How does the body respond to hypoglycemia? |
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Definition
| The pancreas responds to low glucose by increasing the stimulation of glucagon |
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Term
| How does the body respond to hyperglycemia? |
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Definition
| Pancreas responds by increasing insulin excretion |
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Term
|
Definition
| Beta cells of the pancreas |
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Term
| Increase in insulin will cause |
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Definition
Glucose uptake by cells
Glycogenesis
(Glucose levels will fall to normal) |
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Term
| Insulin level is controlled by |
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Definition
Blood glucose level
Amino acids (when increased the insulin will increase gluconeogenesis) |
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Term
| Insulin release from the pancreas process |
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Definition
| Glucose is taken into the cells through GLUT 2 when insulin is not present. The glucose is converted to ATP in the cell which turns off a potassium channel. Change in potassium causes depolarization which opens up a Calcium channel. Calcium increase in the cell causes the release of insulin. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Found on bloos cells and at the blood brain barrier |
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Term
|
Definition
| Absorbs it in the small intestine and allows it to enter small intestinal epithelial cells, liver cells and pancreatic beta cells |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| Found in adipose tissue and muscles |
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Term
| Glucose tranport proteins are glut 1-5. Which protein is insulin dependent? What tissues are insulin dependent? |
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Definition
GLUT 4
Brain, RBC's and WBC's |
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Term
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Definition
| Acts as antagonist to insulin (inhibits insulin secretion) |
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Term
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Definition
| Acts as antagonist to insulin by increasing blood glucose, promoting gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis and lipolysis and by inhibiting the entry of glucose into the cells |
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|
Term
| Growth hormone (GH) and Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) are insulin-like growth factors (IGF's) that do what? |
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Definition
| Act as an antogonist to insulin |
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Term
|
Definition
| When we are fed we have an increased plasma glucose which slows down alpha pancreatic cells and increases beta pancreatic cells which increases insulin that travels to the liver and increases glycolysis. glycogenesis and lipogenesis which decreases blood glucose |
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Term
| Alpha pancreatic cells inhibit the release of what? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Liver becomes a powerhouse for gluconeogenesis. Fueled by lactate and pyruvate that are the bi-products of glycogen. Fatty acids get broken down into ketones. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Fasting blood glucose is above a 110mg/dL |
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Term
| Immediate and long term physiological effects of hyperglecemia |
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Definition
Immediate- Increased extracellular osmotic pressure, dehydration and acidosis
Long term- Glycosylated hemoglobin |
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Term
| Criteria for the diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus |
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Definition
Random plasma glucose > or = to 200mg/dL
Fasting plasma glucose > or = to 126mg/dL
2-hr postload glucose > or = to 200mg/dl during an oral glucose tolerance test
Hemoglobin A1C > or = to 6.5% |
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Term
|
Definition
| Metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia |
|
|
Term
| What are the two biggest symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus? |
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Definition
Increased urine
Increased thirst |
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Term
|
Definition
| Referred to as juvenille diabetes or insulin dependent Diabetes Mellitus. Caused by autoimmune-mediated insulin deficiency |
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|
Term
| Pathophysiology of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus |
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Definition
| Auto-antibodies target Beta cells of pancreas (or insulin itself) which leads to a low insulin level and therefore a high blood glucose |
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Term
|
Definition
| Non-insulin dependent Diabetes Mellitus or insulin resistant diabetes mellitus. Typically an adult onset disease |
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|
Term
| Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus |
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Definition
| Cells develop a reduced sensitivity to insulin and eventually stop responding to insulin which creates an increased blood glucose |
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Term
| Risk factors of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus |
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Definition
Obesity
Lack of exercise
Diet
Genetics
Drugs
Increase in GH and cortisol |
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Term
| Common complication of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus |
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Definition
| Patients don't form diabetic acoketosis and go into a hyperosmotic coma. Also there is an incerased risk for developing micro/macro vascular compications |
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|
Term
| Gestational Diabetes Meullitus |
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Definition
| Hormonal and metabolic changes create abnormal glucose concentrations during pregnany. Makes mothers have an increased risk for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and babies have an increased risk for respiratory complications and hypoglycemia after birth |
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Term
| Babies need to have what type of glucose level to be considered hypoglycemic |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Glucagon is released when? |
|
Definition
| When plasma glucose levels are below 60 mg/dL to inhibit insulin |
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|
Term
| Epinephrine, cortisol and growth hormone are released from the adrenal gland when? and to do what? |
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Definition
| Released when plasma glucose levels are below 60 mg/dL to increase glucose metabolism and inhibit insulin |
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Term
|
Definition
| Small frequent meals that are low in carbs and high in protein |
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Term
| Three categories hypoglycemia are |
|
Definition
Induced (Caused by administration of meds or exogenous compound, alcohol)
Fasting (Caused by inability of body to produce glucose during fasting periods)
Reactive (Excessive insulin release after a meal |
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|
Term
| Serum or plasma fasting blood glucose ref range |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Whole blood blood glucose ref range |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Stability of blood glucose test |
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Definition
Serum or plasma must be run within 1 hour.
Sodium fluoride inhibits glycolysis and prolong sample integrity |
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|
Term
| Trindler reaction is used for |
|
Definition
| Blood and CSF. Urine has too many interfering substances and because of this it is not the reference method. |
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Term
|
Definition
Glucose oxidation reaction in which glucose plus oxygen and water, in the presence of glucose oxidase form gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide.
Also hydrogen peroxide plus chromagen, in the presence of peroxidase, forms oxidized chromagen plus water |
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|
Term
| Interfering substances of the Trindler reaction include |
|
Definition
Ascorbic acid
Bilirubin
Uic acid |
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|
Term
|
Definition
Glucose + ATP in the presence of hexokinase yields glucose-6-phosphate and ADP
Also Glucose-6-phosphate in the presence of G6PD yields NADPH + H+ 6-phosphogluconate |
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|
Term
| NADPH can be directly measured at what wavelength? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hexokinase methodology is used for? |
|
Definition
| Measuring blood, urine and CSF. It has very few interfering substances and because of this it is considered to be the reference method. |
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