these are changes in the postsynaptic membrane potentials (ie. postsynaptic potentials) in response to neurotransmitters

there are 2 types:

EPSP

IPSP

False:

the potential produced by one synapse is usually about 0.5 to 2.0 millivolts

T/F: potential produced by one syanpse is usually not enough to reach a threshold potential

why or why not?

True:

recall that a single synapse usually produces about 0.5 to 2.0 millivolts (mV) of potential

in order to reach a threshold, the potential needs to be about 15mV to 25mV

False:

temporal summation is rapid successive discharge from the same* axon terminal

temporal means over time

False:

temporal and spatial summation cause EPSPs

True:

only one postsynaptic neuron is doing the summation of multiple impulses whether temporal or spatial

False:

summation over an area

False:

spatial summation involves multiple axon terminals

and

one postsynaptic neuron

False:

they vary widely in structure

1) acetylcholine

2) norepinephrine

3) dopamine

4) serotonin

5) glutamate

6) GABA

7) glycine

and neuropeptides

_________ is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the CNS

_________ is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the PNS

GABA = most abundant in CNS

Acetylcholine = most abundant in PNS

Acetylcholine = CNS and PNS

Norepinephrine = CNS and PNS

Dopamine = CNS

Serotonin = CNS

Glutamate = CNS

GABA = CNS

Neuropeptides:

Endorphins = CNS

Nitric Oxide = CNS and PNS

Dopamine

dopamine activity has been hypothesized to be involved in feelings associated with love and romance

Serotonin

Serotonin is released from neurons in the brain and particularly from the 'raphe nuclei' located in the brainstem

Serotonin

the hallucinogenic drug LSD is an 'agonist' to serotonin

LSD binds to serotonin receptors and stimulates serotonin activity, ie. agonistic behavior

glutamate

NMDA is one type of glutamate receptor and it is important in memory (ie. long term potentiation of neurons)

Serotonin

GABA

glycine

GABA

degeneration of GABA producing neurons in CNS can result in Huntington's Disease or Huntington's Chorea

Glycine

"Strychnine" is used as a rodent poison and blocks glycine postsynaptic receptors

True

recall that ACh is produced in PNS and CNS

most abundant NT in PNS

False:

ACh

False:

Norepinephrine are involved in the arousal of the CNS (ie. alertness of the CNS)

False:

norepinephrine is involved in the arousal of CNS (not PNS) - alertness of CNS

Stress

Caffeine

drugs such as amphetamines and cocaine

amphetamines

cocains

nicotine

alcohol

marijuana

morphine

False:

cocaine (and all other things that enhance dopamine activity) block the re-uptake of dopamine after its release from the axon terminal thus prolonging its effect on the synapse

False:

excessive dopamine activity causes Schizophrenia

False:

Serotonin is derived from tryptophan

True:

both tryptophan (serotonin is derived from tryptophan) and serotonin affect sleep

locus ceruleus =

substantia nigra =

raphe nuclei =

= norepinephrine

= dopamine

= serotonin

Dopamine, Serotonin, and GABA

Dopamine = involved in emotions such as the feelings of well being, happiness (elation) and in the 'behavior and reward areas' of the brain

Serotonin = important in regulation emotional states such as 'depression' and 'elation'

GABA = appears to be involved in emotions (anti-anxiety drugs)

Parkinson's Disease and Schizophrenia

Parkinson's disease is associated with the degeneration of the dopmanergic neurons in the substantia nigra

Schizophrenia is associated with excessive dopamine activity

Antidepressant drugs such as Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil

these drugs enhance serotonin activity by blocking the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron

recall this was the same mechanism that cocaine uses to enhance dopamine activity

what is the difference between antidepressant drugs and hallucinogenic drugs?

both have to do with the same NT - which NT is it?

give the abbreviations of the two drugs:

Both antidepressant drugs and hallucinogenic drug enhance serotonin activity

antidepressant drugs enhance serotonin activity by inhibiting the re-uptake of serotonin by the presynaptic neuron

hallucinogenic drug enhance serotonin activity by acting as agonists - they bind to serotonin receptors and stimulate serotonin acitivity (ie. agonistic behavior)

the antidepressant drugs are called SSRI's = selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

the hallucinogenic drug is LSD

False:

1) serotonin does affect sleep (as well as tryptophan)

2) serotonin suppresses sleep

T/F: glycine is involved in endogenous 'analgesia' system

what is that?

False:

serotonin is involved in endogenous 'analgesia' system

it means that serotonin has the ability to block the transmission of pain information

recall that serotonin has the ability to block transmission of pain information

ex: serotonin agonists are often used to treat migraines

False:

MSG is used as a taste enhancer that is added to many processed foods

it is also a food additive that may stimulate glutamate receptors

MSG = monosodium glutamate

T/F: NMDA is one type of glutamate

what is its function?

False:

NMDA is a receptor

NMDA is one type of glutamate receptor

NMDA appears to be important in memory (ie. long term potentiation of neurons)

False:

about 1/3 of the neurons in the brain release GABA

GABA is the most abundant NT in CNS

Dopamine, GABA, and Glycine

Dopamine appears to be involved in many 'motor' functions (Parkinson's disease)

GABA appears to be involved in motor movements - can inhibit unwanted motor activity (Tetanus toxin)

Glycine suppresses nonessential motor activities

False:

it does the opposite

if it inhibited reuptake of GABA, then that would increase motor activity but either way its all false

1) tetanus toxin inhibits the release of GABA from axon terminals resulting in loss of inhibition which causes uncontrolled muscle spasms

so GABA's normal function is to inhibit motor activity but if you stop releasing GABA then you cannot inhibit motor activity anymore which results in an increase in motor activity (ie. spasms)

Huntington's disease

False:

Huntington's disease occurs b/c of degeneartion of GABA producing neurons in CNS

degeneration of dopamenergic neurons causes Parkinson's disease

it is a rare hereditary neurological disease

1) characterized by spasmodic movements (eg. arms, legs, face, etc)

2) includes loss of mental functions due to degeneration GABA neurons- there is a loss of inhibition by GABA

huntington's disease is caused by a defecive gene

False:

it is

caused by a defective gene

False:

Prozac is the most common selling prescription drug

what kind of drugs are Valium and Librium?

which NT are they related to?

what is their function?

Valium and Librium are anti-anxiety drugs

They are related to GABA

they act by enhancing GABA activity. 

they have a calming effect on the nervous system

False:

amphetamines and cocaine enhance norepinephrine and dopamine activity

anti-anxiety drugs enhance GABA activity

True

along with serotonin and glycine

Glycine

glycine is released from the lower brainstem and spinal cord

False:

glycine stimulates the opening of Cl channels thus causing IPSPs

True:

neuropeptides are peptides* but they are peptide neurotransmitters* also which are released by neurons

False:

not all but some do

other neuropeptides act like neurotransmitters (bind to receptors in synapse and cause opening of ion channels etc)

T/F: neuropeptides usually cause rapid, long term effects on postsynaptic neurons

what does this mean?

False:

they cause slow, long term effects on postsynaptic neurons

this means that they increase or decrease excitability of neurons

Endorphins

Nitric Oxide (NO)

False:

they are used to treat Schizophrenic patients

they act by blocking dopamine receptors

where are endorphins found?

where are NO found?

True:

they are endogenously produced morphine like compounds

False:

endorphins are produced in response to pain, stress, exercise etc

False:

opium, morphine, heroine, methadone are agonists so they bind to opioid receptors and stimulate activity

naloxone is a drug that binds to opioid receptors and blocks* the effect thereby acting as antagonist to endorphins

False:

it does go into the postsynaptic neuron but it just does not bind to the postsynaptic receptors

it directly goes from the presynaptic neuron through the synapse to postsynaptic neuron

False:

it is lipid soluble

this is why it can go from presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic neuron

glutamate and NO

one type of glutamate receptor called NMDA is important in memory

NO is involved in memory and learning via long term potentiation

this has to do with NO

blockage of Ca influx into the axon terminal causes relaxation of the smooth muscles - this includes intestines and respiratory passages

this in turn causes vasodilation of the blood vessels in various tissues including the brain and penis

False:

stimulates the production of second messengers (eg. cGMP)

calcium influx into axon terminal causes the production of NO

which is the only neurotransmitter that may act in retrograde fashion?

when will it act in this fashion?

NO

postsynaptic neuron to presyanptic neuron

it does this when NO is involved in learning and memory (long term potentiation)

False:

they are not always degraded

they can be degraded or they can return back into the presynaptic axon terminal

False:

up to 80% of dopamine and norepinephrine is taken back into the presynaptic axon terminal and then broken down by MAO

T/F: MAO is located in presynaptic neuron while COMT is located in the postsynaptic neuron

what is common between the two?

True:

they are both enzymes that break down dopamine and norepinephrine

T/F: Crostridio tetano is a bacteria that produces tetanus toxin

False:

Clostridium tetani is a bacteria that produces tetanus toxin

this toxin inhibits the release of GABA into the synapses and results in loss of inhibition which causes uncontrolled muscle spasms

cholinesterase inhibitors inhibit the breakdown of acetylcholine thereby prolonging its effect in the synapse

they are used to treat Alzeihmer's disease

False:

many insecticides and nerve gas contain cholinesterase inhibitors which prevent the breakdown of acetylcholine

bradykinesis

this is a symptom of Parkinson's disease (dopamine)

how are serotonin ehancers involved in pharmacology?

what are they used to treat?

we know that serotonin enhancers are antidepressant drugs and hallucinogenic drugs

the antidepressant drugs (Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil) enhance serotonin activity by blocking its reuptake

this is the pharmacology of serotonin

they are used to treat depression/anxiety disorders

False:

90% of the cells in the CNS are glial cells

False:

they help maintain proper conditions in the brain's* (not the body) ECF thus maintaining homeostasis

False:

glial cells maintain proper conditions in brain's ECF thus maintaining homeostasis for neurons

True

they are multifunctional support cells

Oligodendroctyes = CNS

Schwann Cells = PNS

Astrocytes = CNS

Microglia = CNS

Ependymal cells = CNS

False:

its 'dancing' or 'leaping' from one node to another

False:

myelin sheaths prevent depolarization

Nodes of ranvier are areas of depolarization

True:

one oligodendrocyte = many axons

one schwann cells = one axon

in fact, many schwann cells are need to myelinate one axon

T/F: myelin sheaths are layers of lipid that surround the cell body of a neuron from surrounding ICF

what is their function?

False:

1) myelin sheaths are layers of lipid that surround the axon (not the cell body) of a neuron

2) myelin sheaths surround the axon from the surrounding ECF (not ICF)

1) saltatory conduction - myelin sheaths

2) diameter of axons

greater the diameter, faster the conduction

False:

increases velocity conduction by 5 to 50 times

T/F: saltatory conduction has something to do with energy

True:

action potential propagation by saltatory conduction conserves energy b/c fewer ions need to pumped back aross membrane to reestablish the resting potential

False:

squids have giant axons to control their movements

True:

MS is an autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks the myelin

the causes are unclear

MS causes inflammation of myelin, resulting in a progressive demyelination of nerve fibers in various areas of the CNS

this impairs the normal transmission of action potentials

therefore people with MS end up having:

impaired sensory perception

impaired motor coordination

False:

only CNS

recall that oligodendrocytes are found in CNS

False:

multiple sclerosis is abbreviated as MS

multiple sclerosis means multiple scars

T/F: MS usually affects different ares of the CNS

what does this mean?

True:

MS affects different areas of the CNS

this means that the symptoms are different and hard to diagnose

True:

nodes of ranvier are found between successive cells of oligodendrocytes and schwann cells

False:

GBS is associated with Schwann cells

MS is associated with oligodendrocytes

what is a regeneration tube?

what causes it?

successive schwann cells around a single axon creates a regeneration tube

regeneration tube acts as a guide for the repair of damaged neurons (eg. severed neuron)

this why if neurons are damaged in PNS then they can be repaired but neurons that are damaged in CNS cannot be repaired b/c oligodendrocytes do not create regeneration tubes

False:

neurons in the CNS cannot be repaired but neurons in the PNS can be repaired b/c of regeneration tubes

False:

both are autoimmune diseases

GBS is sometimes provoked by a virus

what causes GBS?

what happens to people that have GBS?

GBS is caused by inflammation and demyelination of the PNS neurons which results in impaired functions of the neurons, paralysis

people with GBS have progressive weakness and/or paralysis

GBS

it is sometimes provoked by a virus

False:

1) 80-90% of the people spontaneously recover

no one dies

however, permanent disabilities do occur

False:

only CNS

1) help hold neurons in place

2) guide neurons to their final destination during development

3) help regulate ECF in CNS including pH and ions

4) take up neurotransmitters from the ECF thus helping to quickly terminate neurotransmitter effects

5) can directly connect with neurons via gap junctions

6) can store glycogen in CNS

7) enhance synaptic acitivy and promote the formation of new synapses

one of the functions of astrocytes is to enhance synaptic activity and promote the formation of new synapses

this appears to have an important role in learning and memory

False:

sleep may allow astrocytes to increase glycogen storage in brain

False:

that is the function of astrocytes

MIcroglial cells act as 'trash collectors'

while

Ependymal cells act as 'neural stem cells'

True

they are found in CNS

False:

ependymal cells line the internal cavities of brain and spinal cord

microglial cells are associated with Alzeihmer's disease, stroke, and MS

overactive microglial cells are involved in variety of inflammation-related CNS disorders including Alzeihmer's disease, stroke, and MS

1) they line internal cavities of brain and spinal cord

2) they contribute to the formation of CSF

3) they can act as 'neural stem cells' for forming new glial cells and neurons

cranial nerves

spinal nerves

peripheral nerves

False:

the PNS is divded into autonomic and somatic nervous system

PNS is divided into:

Autonomic nervous system

Somatic nervous system

Somatic nervous system is divided into:

somatic sensory division

somatic motor division

Autonomic nervous system is divided into:

parasympathetic nervous system

symapthetic nervous system

body walls and muscles

like skin, muscles etc

what is the difference between somatic sensory division and somatic motor division?

what are they divisions of?

somatic sensory and somatic motor divisions are divisions of the somatic nervous system which in turn is a division of the PNS

somatic sensory division conducts information to CNS

somatic motor division conducts information from CNS to muscles

1) tactile receptors

2) thermoreceptors

3) pain receptors

4) proprioreceptors

pacinian corpusles

and

hair receptors

cold receptors

and

warm receptors

muscle spindle

and

golgi tendon organ

they detect various types of sensations (touch, temperature, pain, limb position)

they translation stimulus into action potential

False:

tactile receptors are located in the dermis of the skin

this has to do with pacinian corpuscle which we know is a type of tactile receptor

pacinian corpuscles are a 'quick adapting' receptors which means that they stop generating action potentials if the pressure is constant

ex: 'sensory adaptation'

True:

we said that tactile receptors are located in the dermis and pacinian corpuscle is one example of tactile receptors therefore it is located in the dermis

Tactile receptors = located in dermis

Proprioceptors = located in muscles, tendons, and joints

pain receptors

capsaicin is a chemical found in hot peppers which is believed to bind to heat/pain receptors in the mouth.  that is why we perceive burning sensation when we eat hot peppers

Thermoreceptors

and

Pain receptors

False:

nociceptors = pain receptors

mechanoreceptors include _________ and __________

where are they located?

include tactile receptors and proprioceptors

tactile receptors - located in dermis

proprioceptors - located in muscles, tendons, and joints

which receptors are quick adapting?

which receptors are slow adapting?

Tactile receptors = quick adapting

including both pacinian corpuscles & hair receptors

Thermoreceptors = somewhat adapting

Pain receptors = quick adapting and slow adapting

Proprioceptors = slow adapting

muscle spindle receptors are located in skeletal muscles

golgi tendon organs are located in tendons near junction with muscles

muscle spindle receptor respond to muscle length

golgi tendon organ respond to overall tension produced by muscle contraction

False:

surrounded by white matter

center of spinal cord is gray matter and is surrounded by white matter

False:

synapses occur in gray matter

False:

spinal nerves contain axons (not cell bodies) of both motor and sensory neurons

False:

dorsal root = carries sensory info to spinal cord

ventral root = carries motor into away from spinal cord

axons from sensory neurons syanpse _____

axons from motor neurons synapse ______

axons from sensory neurons synapse with spinal cord neurons

axons from motor neurons syanpse in muscles