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| Under this system the elites of government often met in secret to determine the fate of Europe and the world. However, World War I shattered the old system along with the empires that had maintained it. |
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| full gold standard in UK since 1844 - 1914; suspended during WWI; return in 1925 and then finally abandoned by Britain in 1931 |
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| November 11, 1918 at 11a.m. |
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| The Fontainebleau Memorandum is the name given to a document written by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George and his advisers during the Paris Peace Conference, 1919 that was drafting the Treaty of Versailles. It was titled ‘Some Considerations for the Peace Conference Before They Finally Draft Their Terms, March 25th, 1919’. The memorandum called for a peace based on justice that would not provoke future wars. It also warned of the danger of provoking Germany into becoming Bolshevik and the necessity of creating a League of Nations that would ensure international right and the abolition of competitive armaments. Lloyd George and President of the United States Woodrow Wilson were opposed to the French demand for Allied occupation of the Rhineland except as a temporary measure as a guarantee for German payment of reparations. Lloyd George therefore decided to set down in writing what limits the British delegation at the Conference were prepared to go. Lloyd George, General Smuts, Sir Henry Wilson, Sir Maurice Hankey, Philip Kerr retired to Fontainebleau to set out definitely what kind of peace treaty they would like to see. |
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The three most important men at the Paris Peace conference (Versailles treaty) :
Woodrow Wilson (US)
Georges Clemenceau (FR)
David Lloyd George (GB) |
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| The Treaty of Versailles (French: Traité de Versailles) was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I were dealt with in separate treaties.[7] Although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919. Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required "Germany [to] accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage" during the war (the other members of the Central Powers signed treaties containing similar articles). This article, Article 231, later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty forced Germany to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions, and pay reparations to certain countries that had formed the Entente powers.The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was a compromise that left no one content: Germany was neither pacified nor conciliated, nor was it permanently weakened. The problems that arose from the treaty would lead to the Locarno Treaties, which improved relations between Germany and the other European Powers, and the re-negotiation of the reparation system resulting in the Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, and the indefinite postponement of reparations at the Lausanne Conference of 1932. |
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| Territories redistributed after WWI as mandates by the LoN |
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Definition
Ottoman Empire- British mandate of Palestine, French Mandate of Syria
Germany - East Prussia, Upper Silesia, Free City of Danzing
- German East Africa (Tanganiqua), Togo, Cameroon,
German S.W. Africa
Austria - broken apart |
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| 1922 - Conference to decide how to rebuild Central and Eastern Europe, especially Russia and to negotiate relations between capitalist economies and Bolshevik Russia. |
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| 1920 to 1935; US didn't want to join, Russia was not invited and Germany was banned; Treaty of Mutual Assistance in case of aggression; Geneva protocol as arbitration for international disputes; LoN to replace Westphalian secretive system |
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| The Little Entente was an alliance formed in 1920 and 1921 by Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia with the purpose of common defense against Hungarian revision and the prevention of a Habsburg restoration. France supported the alliance by signing treaties with each member country. |
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| "A sanitary zone." The newly formed nations as part of the Versailles Conference protected the peoples of Western Europe from direct exposure to the Communist ideology of Soviet Russia. |
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| 1924: Vladimir Lenin Dies Lenin's death leaves some question as to who will be his successor. Joseph Stalin eventually beats out Leon Trotsky to take control of the Soviet government. |
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| US agenda in Versailles Treaty |
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Definition
| Rebuild Europe, League of Nations, World Peace, Free Trade |
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B blame cause 231- Germany said they were not to blame for the war
R Reparations- Germany meant the amount of money they had to pay was too much and that Britain and France were trying to "starve their children"
A Army- Germany got a very little army and they were angry as they felt they were helpless against other countries.
T Territory- Germany lost a tenth of its land and were not allowed to unite with Austria Hungary again. |
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Term
| Wilson's plan for postwar arrangement |
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| Progressive ideas stemming from USA's domestic policy translated into foreign policy. Wilson's idealism largely welcome, but met with apprehension from Allies. Key points: self-determination, open agreements, free trade, democracy. Also: abolition of secret treaties, a reduction in armaments, an adjustment in colonial claims in the interests of both native peoples and colonists, and freedom of the seas.The report was made as negotiation points, and later the Fourteen Points were accepted by France and Italy on November 1, 1918. Britain later signed off on all of the points except the freedom of the seas.The speech was delivered 10 months before the Armistice with Germany and became the basis for the terms of the German surrender, as negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. The 14 points are split into Diplomatic, Territorial issues and the League of Nations. |
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created by Woodrow Wilson:
1. No more secret agreements between countries. Diplomacy shall be open to the world.
2. International seas shall be free to navigate during peace and war.
3. There shall be free trade between the countries who accept the peace.
4.There shall be a worldwide reduction in weapons and armies by all countries.
5. Colonial claims over land and regions will be fair.
6. Russia will be allowed to determine its own form of government. All German troops will leave Russian soil.
7. German troops will evacuate Belgium and Belgium will be an independent country.
8. France will regain all territory including the disputed land of Alsace-Lorraine.
9. The borders of Italy will be established such that all Italians will be within the country of Italy.
10. Austria-Hungary will be allowed to continue to be an independent country.
11. The Central Powers will evacuate Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania leaving them as independent countries.
12. The Turkish people of the Ottoman Empire will have their own country. Other nationalities under the Ottoman rule will also have security.
13. Poland shall be an independent country.
14.A League of Nations will be formed that protects the independence of all countries no matter how big or small. |
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| A government ruling limiting military budget based on the assumption that there would be no major conflict in following ten years. Adopted in 1919 and abandoned in 1932. |
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| Lloyd George's government |
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| Prime Minister 1916 - 1922. Liberal. Major figure, at the helm in Versailles. Father of the modern welfare state. Partitioning of Ireland. |
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| 1922. Britain almost goes to war with Turkey, but some dominions refuse to back this up - shock for Whitehall. Lloyd George's intention to wage the war anyway costs him his seat. |
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| fall of L. George, Baldwin – Ramsay MacDonald – Baldwin again |
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Definition
The fall of George came with his criticque of the coalition government's handling of the Chanak crisis. They were disgusted by Lloyd George's Anglo-Irish Treaty and fearful he was about to go to war with Turkey. With his government fatally compromised, Lloyd George resigned.
22 May 1923
Conservative Stanley Baldwin becomes prime minister
Conservative Stanley Baldwin became prime minister, with Neville Chamberlain as chancellor of the exchequer, after Andrew Bonar Law resigned due to ill health. Baldwin proposed to abandon free trade, hoping that tariff reform would help to beat unemployment - an unpopular measure. Following the elections of December 1923, the reunited Liberals joined Labour to extinguish tariff reform by a vote of no confidence. Baldwin resigned.
Ramsay Macdonald becomes the first Labour prime minister
After the vote of no confidence that saw Stanley Baldwin resign as prime minister, the leader of the largest opposition party, Ramsay Macdonald, was called on to form a minority Labour government. Labour was unable to realise its more radical ambitions because of its reliance on Liberal support. This helped Macdonald allay fears that a party representing the working class must be revolutionary, but disappointed many supporters on the left.
Conservatives win a landslide election following the 'Zinoviev Letter'
In February 1924, the Labour government formally recognised the Soviet Union, despite nervousness about Communist ambitions. In October, MI5 intercepted an apparently seditious letter from a Soviet official to British communists. Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald agreed to the suppression of the 'Zinoviev letter', but it was leaked just before the election. Stanley Baldwin's Conservatives won by a landslide. Labour's share of the vote actually increased, but the Liberals were totally eclipsed. |
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| Political principles lost by Britain in 1920's |
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Definition
NAVAL Supremacy
BALANCE of Power in Europe
LOW LAND COUNTRIES not to be in hand of a strong power |
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| Irish Free State created in? |
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| Britain's postwar military policy |
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| 1919 - Ten Year Rule - large decrease in military spending. Also Washington Naval Conference 1922 - naval disarmament. |
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| Relations to France following the WWI |
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| A proxy conflict in the Greco-Turkish war: France backed Turkey, Britain Greece. Then, France occupied the Ruhr - Britain backs Germany. Then in the London Conference Britain makes France cede a huge portion of their demands for reparations. However, they later - 1924 - worked on th Geneva Protocol. |
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| European nations struggled in 1920's with their war debt which they tried to solved by massive borrowing. US demanded their payments to be made in gold or dollars and so they prospered due to influx of capital. This drove US financial institutions to speculations a investments between 1925 to 1929. During this time situation in Europe seemingly improved, it was however unsustainable and the European economy was further crushed following the Black Friday and consequent economic depression. |
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| Foreign Policy 1918-1931: Europe |
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Definition
| Engagement in Soviet Civil War - support for the Whites. Proxy conflict with France, but after Geneva thawing of relations. London Conferece - making France abandon the Ruhr - support for Germany. Decreasing demands on war reparations. |
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| Foreign Policy 1918-1931: Palestine, Transjordan, Middle East in general |
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1917: Balfour declaration no.1 grants Jews a 'homeland' in Palestine Britain is given mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine
The mandate system was conceived by US President Woodrow Wilson. France and Britain were commanded to govern their mandates in the interests of their inhabitants, until these territories were ready to be admitted to the League of Nations. The British took over two areas that had previously formed part of the now defunct Ottoman Empire. |
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| Foreign Policy 1918-1931: India |
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| Montagu-Chelmsford reforms: towards a 'gradual development of independent institutions'. Nationalists not pleased, Conservatives in opposition. This instituted dyarchy, with 'reserved' and 'transferred' subjects. Rowlatt Acts - extended state of emergency and subsequent measures - indefinite detention, suppression of press. Unanimously opposed by Indian Congress, Gandhi protested against that. 1919 - Government of India Act: Materialized the Mont/Chelm reforms. Dyarchy, extended franchise. In 1922, Rowlat Acts were suppressed. 1930 - Salt Satyagraha: 'Salt march' opposing British monopoly on salt production, starting the movement for Indian Independence. |
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| Ramsey MacDonald visits the United States; first visit to the US by a sitting British Prime Minister |
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| The Treaty of Rapallo was an agreement signed on 16 April 1922 between Germany and Russia under which each renounced all territorial and financial claims against the other following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and World War I. |
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| 1920 - Treaty that drafted the partition of Ottoman Empire, and made possible creation of the British Mandate of Palestine and French Mandate of Syria. Signed by the Ottoman Empire, Central Powers, Allied P. of UK, France, Japan, Italy and other allied countries. US, and Russia did not participate. It was later annulled and replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne. |
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| 1924 - Revision of the partition of the Ottoman Empire. Its borders agreed upon look almost like today. |
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| Washington Naval Conference |
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Definition
1921-1922 -
FIVE POWER TREATY that by the terms of the treaty agreed to prevent an arms race by limiting naval tonnage in agreed ratio and restrictions with regard to new building of both ships and bases.5:5:3:1,75:1,75 (US:GB:JAP:FR:IT)
NINE POWER TREATY - 1922 - revisited the "Open Door Policy" concerning China and was signed by all attendees: US, GB, JAP, FR, IT, CHINA, BELGIUM, NETHERLANDS, PORTUGAL
FOUR POWER TREATY - 1921 - US, GB, FR, JAPAN -all parties agreed to maintain the status quo in the Pacific, by respecting the Pacific holdings of the other countries signing the agreement, not seeking further territorial expansion, and mutual consultation with each other in the event of a dispute over territorial possessions. |
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| 1927 - US, GB, JAPAN; (France and Italy refused to come) to discuss making joint limitations to their naval capacities. The conference was a failure because the parties did not reach an agreement and the naval arms race continued unabated after the conference. |
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1930 in London. Italy and France refused the concept and didn't sign.
US:GB:JAPAN
10 : 10: 7 |
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| 1923 - Intends to draw some of the war payments from its factories. But the workers strike, Germany pays them to strike which causes them to print money and that causes hyperinflation and France doesn't get its money anyways. |
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| 1924 - was an attempt in to solve the World War I reparations problem, which had bedeviled international politics following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles. To lower the payments but not the debt itself and loan money to Germany. End Ruhr occupation. The Dawes Plan provided short-term economic benefits to the German economy and softened the burdens of war reparations. By stabilizing the currency, it brought increased foreign investments and loans to the German market. But, it made the German economy dependent on foreign markets and economies.Period 1925-1929 of relative prosperity in Europe corresponds with introduction of Dawes plan. original debt was 50 billion golden marks. |
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| 1924 -Zinoviev letter" was a controversial document published by the British Daily Mail newspaper four days before the general election in 1924. It purported to be a directive from the Communist International in Moscow to the Communist Party of Great Britain. |
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| The policy including 10 year rule was caused my the weight of war debt, the British army was traditionally volunteer, with mighty Navy and supremacy at sea. WWI theater on Western Front was first major engagement since Napoleonic Wars in Europe. UK used to distance itself from European affairs and concentrated on the Empire. The Interwar Years represent return to smaller army. Parity w/ USA achieved at naval conferences ensured that UK would not have to invest into expanding military in an arms race. It brought significant savings that could be put towards war debt payments, rebuilding and maintaining standard of living in UK to prevent strikes and such or appeal of communism. |
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| The Geneva Protocol, (Protocol for the peaceful settlement of international disputes) was a proposal to the League of Nations presented by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, and his French counterpart Édouard Herriot. It set up compulsory arbitration of disputes, and a created a method to determine who was the aggressor in international conflicts. All legal disputes between nations would be submitted to the World Court. It called for a disarmament conference in 1925. Any government which refused to comply in a dispute would be named an aggressor. Any victim of aggression was to receive immediate assistance from the League members. McDonald lost power and the new Conservatives government condemned the proposal, fearing it would lead to conflict with the United States. Washington also opposed it, and so did all the British dominions. The proposal was tabled in 1925 and never went into effect. |
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The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland, on 5–16 October 1925 and formally signed in London on 1 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers and the new states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement, and return normalizing relations with defeated Germany (which was, by this time, the Weimar Republic).
Locarno divided borders in Europe into two categories: western, which were guaranteed by Locarno treaties, and eastern borders of Germany with Poland, which were open for revision, thus leading to Germany's renewed claims to the German-populated Free City of Danzig and mixed ethnic Polish territories approved by the League of Nations including the Polish Corridor, and Upper Silesia.
At least one of the main reasons Britain promoted the Locarno Pact of 1925, besides to promote Franco-German reconciliation, was because of the understanding that if Franco-German relations improved, France would gradually abandon the Cordon sanitaire, as the French alliance system in Eastern Europe was known between the wars.[7] If France were to abandon its allies in Eastern Europe, the Poles and Czechoslovaks, having no Great Power to protect them from Germany, would be forced to adjust to German demands; in the British viewpoint, they would be expected to peacefully hand over the territories claimed by Germany such as the Sudetenland, the Polish Corridor, and the Free City of Danzig (modern Gdańsk, Poland).[8] In this way, promoting territorial revisionism in Eastern Europe in Germany’s favor was one of the principal British objects of Locarno.
The Locarno Treaties were regarded as the keystone of the improved western European diplomatic climate of 1924–1930, introducing a hope for international peace, typically called the "spirit of Locarno". This spirit was seen in Germany's admission to the League of Nations in 1926, the international organization established under the Versailles treaty to promote world peace and co-operation, and in the subsequent withdrawal (completed in June 1930) of Allied troops from Germany's western Rhineland.
In contrast, in Poland, the public humiliation received by Polish diplomats was one of the contributing factors to the fall of the Grabski cabinet. Locarno contributed to the worsening of the atmosphere between Poland and France (despite the French-Polish alliance), and introduced distrust between Poland and Western countries.[9] Locarno divided borders in Europe in two categories: those guaranteed by Locarno, and others, which were free for revision. |
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Term
| the Balfour Declaration (1917, 1926) |
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Definition
1. 'Balfour Declaration' gives British support to a Jewish homeland in Palestine
In a letter to a leading member of the British Jewish community, Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour stated the British government's support for a Jewish national home in Palestine, the first such declaration by a world power. It is believed that similar promises were made to the Arabs prior to the publication of the Balfour Declaration in correspondence between Sir Arthur Henry McMahon, British high commissioner in Egypt, and the Hashemite Hussein Ibn Ali, the Sharif of Mecca.
2. 19 October 1926
Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa are recognised as autonomous
In 1923, a dominion's right to make a treaty with a foreign power had been accepted. The Imperial Conference in London went further towards legally defining a dominion by recognising that the dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa) were autonomous and equal in status, a decision that was later affirmed by the 1931 Statute of Westminster. |
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| Germany in the League of Nations |
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| 1929 - Was a program for settling German reparations debts after World War I written in 1929 and formally adopted in 1930. It has significantly lowered the reparation indebtedness as a whole. |
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| 1928 (or Pact of Paris); was a treaty that attempted to outlaw war. Created by US and France. many countries signed but proofed to be impossible to enforce. |
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| Benito Mussolini is Made Italian Premier |
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Definition
| 1922: Benito Mussolini is Made Italian Premier King Victor Emmanuel declares Mussolini premier in an attempt to head off violent conflict between the Fascists and the Communists. |
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| The Statute of Westminster 1931 |
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Definition
| of 11 December 1931, was a British law clarifying the powers of Commonwealth Dominions. It granted these former colonies full legal freedom except in those areas where they chose to remain subordinate to Britain. |
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| The Statute of Westminster |
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| 1931 - The Statute of Westminster, 1931 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and separate versions of it are now domestic law within Australia and Canada; it has been repealed in New Zealand and implicitly by subsequent laws in former Commonwealth realms. Passed on 11 December 1931, the act, either immediately or upon ratification, effectively both established the legislative independence of the self-governing Dominions of the British Empire from the United Kingdom and bound them all to seek each other's approval for changes to monarchical titles and the common line of succession. It thus became a statutory embodiment of the principles of equality and common allegiance to the Crown set out in the Balfour Declaration of 1926. It thus had the effect of making the Dominions sovereign nations. |
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| Imperial Preference / Ottawa conference |
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Definition
| 1932 - Tariff system of preferrence installed. |
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| Jan Smuts coins the term 'Commonwealth of Nations'. Balfour Declaration regarding Palestine. |
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| Government of India Act, follow-up to the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms. |
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| The Anglo-Irish Treaty (Irish: An Conradh Angla-Éireannach), commonly known as The Treaty and officially the Articles of Agreement for a Treaty Between Great Britain and Ireland, was an agreement between the government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and representatives of the Irish Republic that concluded the Irish War of Independence.[2] It provided for the establishment of the Irish Free State within a year as a self-governing dominion within the 'community of nations known as the British Empire', a status 'the same as that of the Dominion of Canada. It also provided Northern Ireland, which had been created by the Government of Ireland Act 1920, an option to opt out of the Irish Free State, which it exercised. |
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| Balfour Declaration no. 2 |
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| The Statute of Westminster |
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Treaty since 1902 till 1923. Based on it Japan entered the WWI on side of Allies. After the war, due to the Treaty of Versailles the treaty was doomed to demise as it was felt that it did not comply with the treaty of Versailles.
Racial equality was one aspect of the relationship. Japan wished to have it recognized as racially equal, but the current situation at that time was tainted by the ideas of Yellow Peril, and the principle of whites dominating the colored races in colonies. US and Australia were against such equality propositions to be incorporated in the Treaty of Versailles. For Americans due to their segregation laws and to Australians due to their White Australia Policy. The racial inequality may have attributed to japan alining itself with Nazi Germany in WWII. |
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| Why UK abandoned treaty with Japan? And the effects? |
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Definition
| US was against UK and Japan being allies. UK knew it couldn't keep up the arms race with USA and so it had to attend the Washington Naval Conference and seek parity with the US. So the Anglo Japanese Treaty was to expire in 1923 and instead of renewing it UK chose to go to the Washington Naval Conference instead. In effect Japan was humiliated by UK and USA because of inferior naval limitations. |
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Definition
In the 19th century Britain had reasons to worry about Russia possibly attempting to overtake British India, its attempts at Afghanistan and attacks on the Ottoman Empire that threatened to destabilize Eastern Europe as Russia seek war water port. This was period of Russophobia caused by the "Great Game" over central Asia. Queen Victoria's diplomatic strategy assured family linkage withe dynasties allover Europe including the Romanov's.
Early twentieth century was also marked by the tentsion over the Russian-Japanese war because Japan was British ally since 1902.
Later treaties were Triple-Entante in WWI with France and Britain against central powers. However, the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 unsettled their relations. Britain supported the Whites against the Reds in the Russian civil war. (e.i. Czechoslovak legions and help of Japanese ships with their transport from Vladivostok). British motivation was to use this legion to fight Germans on the Eastern front and to prevent Bolsheviks from aiding Germany.
The rest of the interwar years were tense. However the Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement was signed in 1921. The relationship went on and off. UK officially recognized USSR in 1924. Zinoviev letter is example of how tense the relationship was. The relations were severed between 1927 and 1929 due to the "Red Menace" fear of influence of Bolshevism and the general strike in England in 1926. |
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England had treaty to keep Belgium neutral and so it joined France in WW1. After the war they both cooperated in the Versailles Treaty and were members of the League of Nations. They split between themselves the Middle East as two mandates by the Treaty of Serves in 1920. Britain did not see itself as much as a part of Europe compared to France because of its large empire and dominions of Australia, NZ, Canada.
They took difference stance towards Germany. UK was more moderate. It wished to resume business as usual and to trade and to get payed war reparations. UK disagreed with French pushing Germany and crushing it with occupation of Ruhr which cause inflation and more troubles than good; also them antagonizing Germany by building the Maginot line, by alining itself with Eastern nations to encircle Germany. England had a history of enmity with French since the 100 year war.
The WWI dismembered the Austria-Hungarian Empire and Germany was systematically kept weak. The vacuum created in Europe would create opportunity to seize power. Britain feared strong France maybe even more than stronger Germany which some in Britain sympathized with and which was after-all perhaps closer to British in its origin and cultural roots.
There was also threat of Bolshevism taking root in France. |
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| British interwar policy in Africa |
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| In Africa Britain did not intend to give up its colonies. |
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Rowlatt act - 1919 - proceeded by the Defense of India act 1915, limiting civil liberties of Indians to prevent uprisings
Emergence of Gandhi as strong political figure after his return to India.
1919 - Amritsar massacre of a peaceful protest
Political groups of: the Muslim League, INC,
Satyagraha- employed by Gandhi is non-violent protest
+ - Non-cooperaton Movement
From about 1920 attempts at turning self-rule movement into a mass movement by Gandhi (6yrs imprisonment). Appeal to untouchables, rural people.
1930 Salt March in protest with British salt tax and making it illegal making your own salt from sea water. |
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| David Lloyd George was a talented politician and British moderate who served as prime minister during and after World War I. His exit from government in 1922 signaled the end of centrism and the beginning of extremis politics in Britain. |
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| Mussolini became Italy's premier on October 30, 1922. He consolidated power by using force and intimidation to eliminate his opponents and create a totalitarian state. Mussolini was sympathetic to Hitler's desires for global hegemony, and would join Germany as an ally during World War Two. |
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| Paul von Hindenburg - Hindenburg had the misfortune of serving as the President of Germany from 1925 to 1934. He was unable to hold off the rise of the Nazi Party, and in 1933 appointed Hitler chancellor, an action followed by a string of concessions to Hitler until Hindenburg's death in 1934. |
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| Poincare was the stable political leader of France's conservatives. He served as prime minister from 1922 to 1924, and from 1926 to 1929, providing stability to the otherwise chaotic French government. |
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| Pilsudski took advantage of Poland's weak democracy to become virtual dictator in 1926, a position he maintained until 1935. Though his method of government was questionable, Pilsudski provided a measure of stability and strength to Polish politics, which floundered after his death. |
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