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Definition
| better recall of items presented most recently |
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Term
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Definition
| better recall of items presented first in the sequence |
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Term
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Definition
| involves a single stimulus and a change in behavior (ie: SEMANTIC and EPISOIDIC) |
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Term
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Definition
| formation of an association between two or more stimuli/or between a stimulus and a particular response (ie: PROCEDURAL and CLASSICAL CONDITIONING) |
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Definition
| things you know you can tell others; what you know, information through facts and learning |
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Definition
| things you know that can show by doing, motor or perceptual skill (performance from memory) |
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Term
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Definition
| by E.L. Thorndike…behaviors that have positive outcome will be repeated; those that have negative outcome will be reduced |
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Term
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Definition
| iconic or echoic (msec); short-term (sec), intermediate-term (hrs); long –term (days+) |
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Term
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Definition
| process of transfer of information to long-term memory |
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Term
| Stages of processing of declarative memory |
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Definition
| Encoding→Consolidation→Storage→Retrieval |
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Term
| Medial temporal lobe memory system |
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Definition
| Episodic memory- autobiographical information, life history, and personal events |
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Term
| Dual-trace hypothesis of memory formation |
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Definition
| formation of memory sets up brief activity in neural circuit (short-term), sustained activity builds stable circuit resulting in chance in nervous system (long-term) |
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Term
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Definition
| previously unassociated stimuli become associated through repeated pairings in time and place |
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Definition
| “Law of Effect” →behaviors that have positive outcome will be repeated, those that have negative outcome will be reduced |
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Definition
| “Radical Behaviorism” → all behavior is result of stimulus-response relationships |
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Term
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Definition
| surgery for epilepsy resulted in distinctive memory loss; long term but not short term memory, declarative but not procedural memory |
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Term
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Definition
| Testing declarative memory in animals, revealed importance of medial temporal lobe, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex for memory functions |
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Definition
| Hebb’s hypothesis and dual-trace hypothesis of memory formation |
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Term
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Definition
| studied gill-withdrawal reflex; with repeated stimulation withdrawal ceases |
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Term
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Definition
| a neutral stimulus acquires the significance of a biologically relevant stimulus through repeated associations |
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Term
| Operant Conditioning/Instrumental Conditioning |
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Definition
| a particular behavior is emitted with increased frequency due to the specific effect it has on the environment |
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Term
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Definition
| decrease in behavior resulting from repeated exposure (not due to adaptation or fatigue) |
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Term
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Definition
| increase in sensitivity to particular kinds of stimulation (usually strong; noxious) |
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Term
| Amnesia: retrograde, anterograde |
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Definition
| RETROGRAD:loss of memories formed in past, ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA: inability to form new memories |
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Term
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Definition
| severe anterograde amnesia, create false stories to fill in gaps of memory…damage to mammillary bodies and dorsomedial thalamus, basal forebrain |
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Term
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Definition
| general knowledge, with no personal information attached, facts, verbal (distributed in brain by information type) |
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Term
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Definition
| autobiographical information, life history, personal events (localized to medial temporal lobe and frontal cortical areas) |
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Term
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Definition
| “Neurons that fire together, wire together.” (LTP)…”Those that fail to sync, lose their link.” (LTD) |
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Term
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Definition
| sea slug used to investigate the neural mechanisms of habituation- advantageous because they have a small number of nerve cells compared to mammals, it is possible to create detailed circuit maps of the neurons in invertebrate ganglia. Research determined that over a wide range of species, information can be stored in the nervous system by changes in both strength and number of synaptic contacts |
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Term
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Definition
| “Long Term Potentialism” hippocampus alters, synapses get stronger → NMDA + AMPA |
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Term
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Definition
| ligand-gated and voltage-gated, normally blocked by Mg++ |
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Term
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Definition
| tests spatial learning and memory (AP5 blocks NMDA reception function, blocks formation of LTP) |
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Term
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Definition
| premature aging of the brain. Memory loss for recent events universal hallmark. |
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Term
| Homeostatic control of internal environment |
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Definition
| maintain physiology within normal limits, return system to normal balance following stress |
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Term
| Role of hypothalamus in regulation of biology and behavior |
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Definition
| acts like thermostat, controls autonomic and endocrine systems |
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Term
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Definition
| Humans 98.2 degrees/97-100 degrees; too high- damages to enzymes & proteins, brain functions abnormally, cells die; too low- cell membranes damaged, ice crystals form on membrane, destroys lipid by-layer |
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Term
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Definition
| Endotherms use internal negative feedback system; like a thermostat; the property by which some of the output of a system feeds back to reduce the effect of input signals |
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Term
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Definition
| Example of homeostatic redundancy; sensors in skin, core body structures, brain; mediate responses on different time scales; two types of responses to temperature variation, behavioral & autonomic; different brain sites coordinate different types of responses; Hypothalamus acts like thermostat; controls autonomic & endocrine systems |
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Term
| Endocrine system; mode of communication |
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Definition
homeostasis (maintaining constant, stable internal environment) results from interaction between brain and endocrine system, controlled by hypothalamus
• Collection of glands
• Glands secrete hormones which circulate in bloodstream, influence remote target tissues
• Target tissues have specific receptors for specific hormones
• Endocrine communication is global (neural transmission local to synapse)
• Hormone secretion is regulated locally or in brain by hypothalamus and pituitary gland
• Endocrine system communicates with nervous and immune systems. |
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Term
| Function of anterior, posterior pituitary glands- |
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Definition
ANTERIOR- receives releasing hormones from hypothalamus
POSTERIOR important in regulation of hydration, parental, and social behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| regulatory mechanisms monitor volume and salt content |
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Term
| Regulation of food intake |
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Definition
| supply nutrients for sue by the body, maintenance of organ function, growth, tissue repair…supply energy for maintenance of cellular/bodily function |
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Term
| Dual-center theory of feeding control |
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Definition
| ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): stimulation stops eating, lesion results in overeating and obesity; “satiety” center. Lateral hypothalamus (LH): stimulation induces eating, lesion results in reduced eating and starvation; “hunger” center. |
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Term
| Circuadian, seasonal rhythms |
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Definition
| pattern of behavioral, biochemical, or physiological fluctuation that has a 24-hour period. |
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Term
| Stages of sleep and waking |
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Definition
Sleep happens in stages, stage 5 sleep is paradoxical sleep- EEG is like the awake state, deepest stage of sleep, REM (rapid eye movements) loss of muscle tone, dreaming, nightmares
• Sleep patterns vary with species- Monkeys have most REM, Cows have most Awake followed by Fox & Human, Humans have a relatively small REM state
• Sleep patterns emerge about 4 months after birth (Waking increases with age, REM and Non-REM decrease)
• Diurnal & nocturnal |
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Term
| Function and regulation of sleep by brain |
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Definition
| Sleep is for energy conservation, body restoration (protein synthesis), predator avoidance, memory consolidation, lack of sleep increases mortality, sleep deprivation effects on immune system function, REM is more intense following deprivation |
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Term
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Definition
| generate and regulate body heat internally, automatically |
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Term
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Definition
| actively obtain heat from environment, behavioral regulation (warm/cool body) |
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Term
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Definition
| Passes through membrane, binds to DNA, alters gene transcription |
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Term
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Definition
| a long string of amino acids, the basic building material of organisms |
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Term
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Definition
| a neuron that releases hormones into local or systemic circulation |
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Term
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Definition
| hormones produced in the hypothalamus that traverse the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system to control the pituitary’s release of tropic hormones |
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Term
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Definition
| hormone released from the posterior pituitary that triggers milk letdown in the nursing female |
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Term
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Definition
| peptide hormone from the posterior pituitary that promotes water conservation |
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Term
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Definition
| thirst created by too much salt in the extracellular fluid |
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Term
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Definition
| thirst created by reduction in fluid volume |
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Term
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Definition
| is homeostatic, attempts to regulate body weight at “ideal” level; protects energy reserves, opposes weight loss with reduction in food intake |
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Term
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Definition
| sugar molecule used by the body and brain for energy |
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Term
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Definition
| peptide hormone released by fat cells |
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Term
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Definition
| excessive glucose in the urine, caused by the failure of insulin to induce glucose absorption by the body |
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Term
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Definition
| associated problems: high blood pressure, diabetes, heart and respiratory disease |
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Term
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Definition
| WEIGHT (kg) / height X height (in. x in.) |
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Term
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Definition
| process of synchronizing a biological rhythm to an environmental stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| “free runs” in absence of light-dark signal, disrupted by SCN lesion |
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Term
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Definition
| Light information from retina to suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus (SCN) synchronizes rhythms |
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Term
| Photosensitive ganglion cells |
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Definition
| Glutamate release by ganglion cell axons triggers gene transcription, entrains cycle |
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Term
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Definition
| SWS, sleep, divided into stages 1 through 4 that is defined by the presence of slow-wave EKG activity. |
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Term
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Definition
| “rapid eye movement”, no muscle tone |
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Term
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Definition
| disorder in which person physically acts out a dream |
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Term
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Definition
| disorder involving frequent, intense episodes of sleep, which can last 5-30 minutes and occur anytime during the usual waking hours |
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Term
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Definition
| neuropeptide produced in the hypothalamus that plays a role in switching from waking to SWS and REM sleep. |
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Term
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Definition
| unreliable respiration during sleep (over relaxation of throat, diaphragm, or abnormality in brainstem respiratory control center) |
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Term
| Expression of emotion as a form of communication |
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Definition
| Darwin presented evidence that that expression of emotions are universal among people of all regions of the world. Individual response stereotypy is the tendency of individuals to show the same response pattern to particular situations throughout their life span |
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Term
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Definition
o Perception of threat (fear) leads to release of cortisol from adrenal cortex (affects endocrine system)
o Noragregenic innervation affects antibody production (affects immune) |
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Term
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Definition
o Thyroid hormones are necessary for development of nervous system (affects PNS)
o Release of cortisol inhibits immune responses (affects immune system) |
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Term
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Definition
o Immune system products (interleukins, lymphokines) affect brain activity (affects PNS)
o Immune system products modulate endocrine responses to infection (affects endocrine) |
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Term
| Emotion as physiological vs. psychological construct |
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Definition
| James-Lange came to the view that emotional experience was the result of physiological arousal, not the reverse; Evolutionary psychology points to ways in which emotions are adaptive and could have developed through natural selection- emotions are broad motivational programs that coordinate various responses to solve specific adaptive problems emotional expression develops during the first 9 months after birth |
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Term
| Cognitive modulation of emotion; Schachter and Singer (1962) |
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Definition
individuals interpret visceral activation in terms of the eliciting stimuli, the surrounding situation, their cognitive states, and experience. Emotional labels (anger, fear, joy) depend on the interpretations of a situation- interpretations arrived at by internal cognitive systems.
• Experiment- people injected w/adrenaline and either told there would be no effect or that their heart would race. People who were warned of the reaction reported no emotional experience; those who were not forewarned experienced emotion. An emotional state is the result of an interaction between physiological activation and cognitive interpretation of that arousal |
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Term
| Classification of emotion |
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Definition
| Eight basic emotions are arrayed as four pairs of opposite emotions. Lower & higher intensity forms of each basic emotion appear at the bottom & top levels |
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Term
| Experience vs. genetic determinants of emotion; Jerome Kagan (1977) |
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Definition
| study shows high reactivity in infancy predicts later anxiety, insecurity; emotion develops during first 9 months after birth |
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Term
| Organization of Limbic System |
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Definition
| regulatory, reproductive, emotional, survival; limbic system is a loosely defined, widespread group of brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network- these nuclei are implicated in emotions |
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Term
| Organization of amygdala; effects on behavior |
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Definition
BEHAVIOR
• Closely associated with negative emotions (fear, anxiety, aggression, rage), temporal lobe seizures presaged by sensation of fear, damage results in Kluver-Bucy profile, impaired ability to recognize negative emotional expression;
ORGANIZATION:
o Amygdala receives input from all sensory systems via thalamus, direction projection from olfaction
o Has direct and indirect input pathways, 3 output pathways |
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Term
| Role of formal cortex on emotional expression |
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Definition
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Term
| Role of neural networks- neuromodulatory systems in cyclic disorders |
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Definition
| People w/cyclic disorders display enlarged ventricles, which probably indicates the presence of brain abnormalities. Suggests an accumulation of changes in the brain over time which occur in subcortical limbic structures like the amygdala |
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Term
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Definition
| nature of emotions similar across animals, emotional expression is similar in primates, human and non-human, emotional expression as a form of communication |
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Term
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Definition
| “What Is Emotion” – emotions we experience are caused by bodily changes; we experience fear because we perceive the body activity triggered by particular stimuli |
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Term
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Definition
| 7 basic emotions based on facial expressions- universal in all cultures; Anger, sadness, happiness, fear, disgust, surprise, contempt, embarrassment (embarrassment proposed to be an 8th basic emotion) |
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Term
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Definition
| “Papez Circuit Theory” – the loop allows thoughts and feelings to interacting as in Cannon-Bard or Schachter theories |
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Term
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Definition
| NYU- Amygdala has direct and indirect input pathways & 3 output pathways |
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Term
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Definition
| animals lacking cerebral cortex respond to random stimuli with sudden, intense rage |
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Term
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Definition
| damage to large areas of temporal lobes results in tame, submissive, behavior; lack of emotion or affect |
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Term
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Definition
| Destruction of a set of interconnected pathways in the brain would impair emotional processes; interconnected regions include mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus, anterior thalamus, cingulated cortex, hippocampus, and fornix |
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Term
| MacLean’s model of emotional control |
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Definition
3 levels of behavioral control
• Brainstem level- primitive, reflexive, stereotyped, survival-related function
• Limbic level- regulatory, reproductive, emotional survival
• Cerebral level- self control, rational thought, modulation of limbic system |
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Term
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Definition
Lesions of the amygdala eliminate fear conditioning, LTP in amygdala associated with fear conditioning
• Serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine all released in response to amygdala activation |
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Term
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Definition
| 1) initially tone has no significance, 2) tone is paired with mild foot shock, 3) tone elicits freezing, BP elevation |
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Term
| Post-traumatic stress disorder |
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Definition
Intrusive recurrence of emotional arousal associated with traumatic event (as if reliving), memory abnormalities (retrograde amnesia), flashbacks, heightened sensitivity to certain sensory stimuli, can be triggered by apparently benign stimuli
• Affects 8 million Americans, can develop in children
• Chronic condition may result in abnormal endocrine function (imbalance in stress hormones) |
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Term
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Definition
| Breaks stimulus-response relationship, but amygdala retains “memory”; may underlie heightened emotional memories in PTSD |
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Term
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Definition
| Common trigger for anxiety-related disorders, prolonged stress compromises health (fatigue, muscle wasting, steroid diabetes, high blood pressure, ulcers, psychogenic dwarfism, bone decalcification, suppression of ovulation, impotency, loss of libido, apathy, accelerated neural degeneration during aging, impaired disease resistance |
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Term
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Definition
recurrent transient episodes of intense fear & anxiety, increased release of NE from locus coeruleus, associated with temporal love, anterior cingulated gyrus, & frontal cortex abnormalities (PET, fMRI), alleviated by benzodiazepines (Valium) or SSRIs (Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors)
Benzodiazepines; GABA- Valium; alleviates panic disorders- bind to endogenous receptors sites on GABAa receptor, enhance action of GABA in brain
• Fewer binding sites for benzodiazepine in panic disorders |
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Term
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Definition
| Distribution of benzodiazepine receptors in human brain are widespread |
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Term
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Definition
Intense, irrational fears, nonspecific arousal associated with a specific object, activity, situation, may be learned or conditioned fear; object of fear must be avoided
• Ex: acrophobia, agoraphobia, social phobia
• Cognitive behavioral therapy is the most effective treatment |
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Term
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Definition
| Recurrent thoughts; actions repeated many times, increased activity in orbitofrontal & cingulated cortex & caudate nuclei, may be serotonin system disorder; responds to SSRIs |
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Term
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Definition
| Repetitive motor behaviors, tics, strong genetic component, more common in males, childhood onset & may diminish with age, associated with basal ganglia circuit, dopamine system |
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Term
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Definition
| Severe mood disorder; alternating bouts of mania (extreme energy & elatedness) and depression (profound sense of despair and unhappiness) Cycle varies from 4 per year to many per day. Treatable with lithium and anti-convulsants to stabilize brain chemistry; affect ionic balance across neural membrane |
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Term
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Definition
Chronic profound unhappiness, hopelessness, universal pessimism, loss of energy, interests, appetite, and suicidal tendencies
• Co-occurs with other disorders like PTSD & OCD
• Genetic component, affects women more than men
• Typically onset in adulthood but becoming recognized in children and adolescents
• Disrupts circadian cycles
• HPA Theory of Depression- Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal dysfunction; higher levels of cortisol in bloodstream of depressives could be abnormal hypothalamic activity or reduced sensitivity of brain to cortisol
• Monoamine theory- Disorder of monoamine neurotransmitters, alleviated by MAO inhibitors, SSRIs effective, act directly or via GABA receptors |
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Term
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Definition
| Monozygotic twins- identical twins- occur when a single egg is fertilized to form one zygote which then divides into two separate embryos; they have nearly the same DNA, Dizygotic Twins- two fertilized eggs are implanted in the uterine wall at the same time, different DNA |
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Term
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Definition
| Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (ex: Prozac) a drug that blocks the reuptake of transmitter at serotonergic synapses; commonly used to treat depression |
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Term
| Treatment of mental illness |
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Definition
| focus on behavior, symptomatic management- Treatment is difficult because addiction is physical as well as psychological; changes in the brain accompany addiction |
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Term
| Frontal cortex modulation of limbic system |
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Definition
| decreased activity in prefrontal cortex leads to hyperactivity in mesolimbic pathway (leads to Schizophrenia) |
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Term
| Neurodevelopmental, Dopamine theories of schizophrenia |
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Definition
• Neurodevelopmental- abnormalities in structure and function set in motion by genetic or environmental insult in utero
• Dopamine- Specific disorder of mesolimbic –cortical dopamine pathway; hyperactivity resembles psychosis) amphetamine psychosis); most effective drugs block D2 receptors |
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Term
| Drug abuse, drug dependence |
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Definition
| Alcohol, opiates, cannabinoids, stimulants, hallucinogens, most drugs of abuse affect the function of the monoamines |
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Term
| Addiction and the neural reward network |
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Definition
| continued use of substance despite clear evidence of its detrimental effects; psychological, behavioral, and physiological components; positive reward mechanism- mesolimbic cortical “reward” network active in development of drug dependence, increased release of DA in nucleus accumbens accompanies cocaine delivery |
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Term
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Definition
thought disorder, impairment in logical structure of thought
Positive symptoms → abnormal behaviors “gained”
Negative symptoms→loss of normal functions |
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Term
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Definition
| when both twins suffer from schizophrenia (one member, then the pair is discordant); half of monozygotic twins of a person with schizophrenia are concordant, and 17% for dizygotic twins |
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Term
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Definition
| continued use of substance despite clear evidence of its detrimental effects; psychological, behavioral, and physiological components |
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Term
| Drug induced psychosis (amphetamine, PCP) |
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Definition
| Phencyclidine was developed as an anesthetic; causes psychosis similar to schizophrenia, including hallucinations and delusions; non-competitive antagonist, stimulates release of dopamine in prefrontal cortex & nucleus accumbens |
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Term
| Non-competitive antagonist |
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Definition
| does not bloc site of glutamate binding, but inactivates receptor |
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Term
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Definition
| an individual incapable of feeling remorse, extreme disruption of normal social regulation of behavior, impulsive, severe emotional detachment, blunted response to violence symbols, reduced activity in prefrontal cortex, shrunken prefrontal cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| successive treatments have decreasing effects |
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Term
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Definition
| increases number of receptors available to the receptors antagonist |
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Term
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Definition
| decreases the number of receptors available to the receptor’s agonist |
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Term
| Dose-response relationship |
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Definition
| drug effects vs. does given; administering larger does of a drug ultimately increases the proportion of receptors that are bound & affected by that drug |
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Term
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Definition
| unpleasant sensations associated with sudden removal of chronically used drug |
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