Term
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Definition
| Substance that acts to alter mood, thought, or behavior and is used to manage neuropsychological illness |
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Term
| Antianxiety Agents and Sedative Hypnotics |
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Definition
Barbituates
Produce sedation and sleep (e.g., alcohol)
Can also produce general anesthesia, coma, and death
Benzodiazepines
Minor tranquilizers
Antianxiety agents
Drugs that reduce anxiety (e.g., Valium)
Often used for temporary purposes (e.g., coping with stress due to a death in family)
The GABAA Receptor
Excitation produces an influx of chloride (Cl-) ions, which hyperpolarizes the neuron
The GABAA Receptor Has Two Sites:
Sedative-Hypnotic Site: Alcohol and barbituates
Directly influences Cl- influx
Antianxiety Site: Benzodiazepines
Enhances binding effects of GABA
Effect is dependent upon amount of GABA present
Harder to overdose |
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Term
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Definition
Major Tranquilizer (Neuroleptic)
Drug that blocks the D2 dopamine receptor
Used mainly for treating schizophrenia
Mechanism of therapeutic action is still not understood
Immediate effect of reducing motor activity
After short period of use, there is a reduction in the symptoms of schizophrenia
Negative side effect: Dyskinesia (impaired control of movement) |
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Term
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Definition
Major Depression
Mood disorder characterized by
Prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt
Disruption of normal eating habits
Sleep disturbances
General slowing of behavior
Frequent thoughts of suicide
Common: ~6% of adult population
Twice as common in women as in men |
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Term
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Definition
Used to treat bipolar disorder
Mutes the intensity of one pole of the disorder, thus making the other pole less likely to recur
Mechanism is not well understood
Lithium may increase serotonin release
Valproate may stimulate GABA activity |
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Term
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Definition
Opioid Analgesic
Drugs with sleep-inducing (narcotic) and pain-relieving (analgesic) properties
Opiates:
Many of these drugs are derived from
opium, an extract of the seeds of the
opium poppy
Pure substances derived from the poppy
plant
Codeine: ingredient of cough medicines and pain relievers
Morphine: powerful pain reliever Heroin derived from morphine
Nalorphine and Naxolone
Opiate antagonists that block the effects of morphine
Heroin
An opiate drug synthesized from morphine
More fat soluble and penetrates the BBB faster than morphine, therefore it produces very rapid pain relief
Opiates are potentially addictive
Endorphin
Peptide hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter and may be associated with feelings of pain or pleasure
Mimicked by opiate drugs such as morphine, heroin, opium, and codeine
Morphine acts on three opioid-receptor classes
Mu, delta, and kappa
Mu receptor is critical for morphine’s effect on pain and for its addictive properties |
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Term
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Definition
Behavioral Stimulants
Increase motor behavior and elevate a person’s mood and level of alertness
Cocaine
Obtained from the leaves of the coca plant
Addictive
Blocks dopamine reuptake
Derivates such as Novocaine are used as local anesthetics
Amphetamine
Dopamine agonist: releases dopamine into the synapse and blocks the reuptake of dopamine, as well
Some Uses:
Initially an asthma treatment
Study aid
Improvement of alertness and productivity
Weight-loss aid
General Stimulants
Drugs that cause a general increase in the metabolic activity of cells
Caffeine
Inhibits the enzyme the normally breaks down the second messenger cyclic AMP
Increase in cAMP leads to an increase in glucose production within cells, which makes more energy available and allows for higher rates of cellular activity |
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Term
| Psychedelic and Hallucinogenic Stimulants |
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Definition
Psychedelic Drugs
Alter sensory perception and cognitive processes and can produce hallucinations
Four main types
Acetylcholine psychedelics
Norepinephrine psychedelics (e.g., mescaline)
Serotonin psychedelics (e.g., LSD, psilocybin)
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): active ingredient in marijuana |
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Term
| Routes of drug administration |
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Definition
Oral administration is the safest, easiest, and most common route
But oral administration is also the most complex as there are more barriers that the drug must cross to have its desired effect
Other methods, such as inhalation or injection, produce much faster effects as there are fewer barriers for the drug to pass
(look at picture) |
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Term
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Definition
Pineal gland: entry of chemicals that affect day-night cycles
Pituitary gland: entry of chemicals that influence pituitary hormones
Area posterma: entry of toxic substances that induce vomiting |
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Term
| How the body eliminates drugs |
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Definition
Drugs are broken down in the kidneys, liver, and intestines
Drugs are then excreted in urine, feces, sweat, breast milk, and exhaled air
Some substances that cannot be removed may build-up in the body and become toxic |
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Term
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Definition
| Substance that INCREASES the effectiveness of a neurotransmitter |
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Term
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Definition
| Substance that DECREASES the effectiveness of a neurotransmitter |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
- Metabolic tolerance
Increase in number of enzymes used to break down substance
- Cellular tolerance
Activities of brain cells adjust to minimize effects of the substance
- Learned Tolerance
People learn to cope with being intoxicated |
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Term
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Definition
Response to a novel drug is reduced because of tolerance developed in response to a related drug
Suggests that the two drugs affect a common nervous system target
Example: Barbituates and benzodiazepines affect the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA |
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Term
| Three classes of antidepressants |
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Definition
1. Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Inhibitors
Block the enzyme MAO from degrading neurotransmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin
2. Tricyclic Antidepressants
First-generation antidepressants with a chemical structure characterized by three rings that block serotonin reuptake transporter proteins
3. Second-Generation Antidepressants
Action is similar to first-generation antidepressants, but is more selective in its action on the serotonin reuptake transporter proteins; also called atypical antidepressants |
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Term
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Definition
Alcohol has a selective depressant effect on the cortex (the region of the brain that controls judgment), while sparing subcortical structures (those areas of the brain responsible for more-primitive instincts, such as desire)
Limitation:
Behavior under the influence of alcohol often differs depending upon the context |
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Term
| Substance abuse and addiction |
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Definition
Substance Abuse
Use of a drug for the psychological and behavioral changes that it produces aside from its therapeutic effects
Addiction (a.k.a. substance dependence)
Desire for a drug manifested by frequent use of the drug, leading to the development of physical dependence in addition to abuse
Often associated with tolerance and unpleasant, sometimes dangerous, withdrawal symptoms upon cessation of drug use |
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Term
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Definition
Physical and psychological behaviors displayed by an addict when drug use ends
Examples: muscle aches and cramps, anxiety attacks, sweating, nausea, convulsions, death
Time-course
Withdrawal symptoms from alcohol and morphine start within several hours of last dose and intensify over several days before subsiding |
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Term
| drugs that cause brain damage |
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Definition
Drugs that have been associated with brain damage or cognitive impairments:
Amphetamines
MDMA (“ecstasy”): Serotonin neurons
Methamphetamine: Dopamine neurons
Cocaine:
Blocks cerebral blood flow
Phencyclidine (PCP or “angel dust”):
Blocks NMDA receptors |
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Term
| Drugs that don't cause brain damage |
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Definition
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Term
| The four levels of hierarchical control of hormones |
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Definition
Four Levels
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Target Endocrine Glands
Target Organs and Tissues |
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Term
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Definition
| Maintain a state of internal metabolic balance and regulation of physiological systems |
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Term
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Definition
Sex hormones contribute to brain differences:
Male brain is slightly larger than female after correcting for body size
Right hemisphere is larger than the left hemisphere in men
Female brains have higher rates of cerebral blood flow and glucose utilization
Parts of the corpus callosum are larger in women
Language areas of the brain are somewhat larger in women |
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Term
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Definition
Specialized cells that transduce (convert) sensory energy (e.g., light) into neural activity
Each sensory’s system’s receptors are designed to filter a different form of energy:
Vision: Light energy chemical energy
Auditory: Air pressure mechanical energy
Somatosensory: Mechanical energy
Taste & Olfaction: Chemical molecules |
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Term
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Definition
| Stream of visual stimuli that accompanies an observer’s forward movement through space |
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Term
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Definition
Important in determining the sensitivity of a sensory system
Example: more tactile receptors on the fingers as compared to the arm
Differences in receptor density determine the special abilities of many animals
Example: Olfactory ability of dogs |
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Term
| How do action potentials encode features of sensations? |
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Definition
The presence of a stimulus can be encoded as an increase in a neuron’s firing rate
The amount of increase or decrease can encode the stimulus intensity |
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Term
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Definition
Spatially organized neural representation of the external world
How most mammals represent the sensory field of each modality in the neocortex
In mammals, each sensory system has at least one primary cortical area
These may project to secondary areas |
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Term
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Definition
Sensation
The registration of physical stimuli from the environment by the sensory organs
Perception
Subjective interpretation of sensations by the brain
Our visual experience is not an objective reproduction of what is “out there,” but rather, a subjective construction of reality that is manufactured by the brain |
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Term
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Definition
Focuses light
Bends to accommodate near and far objects |
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Term
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Definition
| Where light energy initiates neural activity |
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Term
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Definition
| Region at the center of the retina that is specialized for high acuity; its receptive field are at the center of the eye’s visual field |
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Term
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Definition
Region of the retina (known as the optic disc) where axons forming the optic nerve leave the eye and where blood vessels enter and leave
This region has no photoreceptors |
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Term
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Definition
More numerous than cones
Sensitive to low levels of light (dim light)
Used mainly for night vision
One type of pigment only |
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Term
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Definition
Highly responsive to bright light
Specialized for color and high visual acuity
Located in the fovea only
Three types of pigment |
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Term
| Three types of cone pigments |
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Definition
Absorb light over a range of frequencies, but their maximal absorptions are:
419 nm (“blue” or short wavelength)
531 nm (“green” or middle wavelength)
559 nm (“red” or long wavelength)
There are approximately equal numbers of red and green cones, but fewer blue cones |
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Term
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Definition
Bipolar cell
Receives input from photoreceptors
Horizontal cell
Links photoreceptors and bipolar cells
Amacrine cell
Links bipolar cells and ganglion cells
Retinal ganglion cell (RGC)
Gives rise to the optic nerve |
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Term
| Magno vs parvocellular cells |
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Definition
Two Types of Ganglion Cells
Magnocellular cell (M-cell)
Magno = large
Receives input primarily from rods
Sensitive to light and moving stimuli; not color
Parvocellular cell (P-cell)
Parvo = small
Receives input primarily from cones
Sensitive to color |
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Term
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Definition
Junction of the optic nerves from each eye
Axons from the nasal (inside) halves of each retina cross over to the opposite side of the brain
Axons from the temporal (outer) halves of each retina remain on the same side of the brain
Information from left visual field goes to right side of brain; information from the right visual field goes to the left side of the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| Projections from the retina to the lateral geniculate nucleus to the visual cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| Projections from the retina to the superior colliculus to the pulvinar (thalamus) to the parietal and temporal visual areas |
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Term
| Primary visual cortex & striate cortex |
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Definition
Striate Cortex
Primary visual cortex (V1) in the occipital lobe
Striped appearance when stained |
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Term
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Definition
Extrastriate (Secondary Visual) Cortex
Visual cortical areas outside the striate cortex |
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Term
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Definition
Dorsal and Ventral Visual Streams
Region in the visual cortex that contains color-sensitive neurons
Revealed by staining for cytochrome oxidase |
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Term
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Definition
Region that separates blobs
Participates in perception of form and motion |
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Term
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Definition
| Receive information from movement-sensitive neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| Receive information from color-sensitive neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| Receive information from form-sensitive neurons |
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Term
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Definition
Region of the visual world that is seen by the eyes
Divided into left and right halves
Information in left visual field goes to the right hemisphere
Information in the right visual field goes to the left hemisphere |
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Term
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Definition
Respond only to the presence or absence of light in their receptive field, not to shape
Concentric circle arrangement
Center and surround (periphery) |
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Term
| On-center vs off-center cells |
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Definition
Retinal Ganglion Cells
On-center cells
Excited when light falls on the center portion of the receptive field; inhibited when light falls on the surround (periphery) of the receptive field
Light across whole receptive field produces weak excitation
Off-center cells
Excited when light falls on the surround portion of the receptive field; inhibited when light falls on the center of the receptive field
Light across the whole receptive field produces weak inhibition |
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Term
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Definition
The amount of light reflected by an object relative to its surroundings
This allows input from RGCs to tell the brain about shape |
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Term
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Definition
| Receptive field with a rectangular on-off arrangement |
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Term
| Complex and hypercomplex cells |
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Definition
seeing shape
Complex Cells
Maximally excited by bars of light moving in a particular direction through the receptive field
Hypercomplex Cells
Like complex cells, they are maximally responsive to moving bars but they also have a strong inhibitory area at one end of its receptive field |
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Term
| Dorsal and ventral visual streams |
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Definition
Dorsal Visual Stream
Pathway that originates in the occipital cortex and projects to the parietal cortex
The “how” pathway (how action is to be guided toward objects)
Ventral Visual Stream
Pathway that originates in the occipital cortex and projects to the temporal cortex
The “what” pathway (identifies what an object is) |
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Term
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Definition
| Destruction of the retina or optic nerve of one eye that produces loss of sight in that eye |
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Term
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Definition
| Blindness of an entire left or right visual field |
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Term
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Definition
| Blindness of one quadrant of the visual field |
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Term
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Definition
| Small blind spot in the visual field caused by a small lesion or migraines of the visual cortex |
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Term
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Definition
Agnosia = not knowing
Visual-Form Agnosia
Inability to recognize objects or drawings of objects
Color Agnosia (achromatopsia)
Inability to recognize colors
Face Agnosia (prosopagnosia)
Inability to recognize faces |
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Term
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Definition
Deficit in the visual control of reaching and other movements
Damage to parietal cortex
Can recognize objects normally |
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Term
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Definition
Neuroanatomy of Emotion and Motivation
Hypothalamus
Limbic System
Frontal Lobes |
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Term
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Definition
Drive
Hypothetical state of arousal that motivates an organism to engage in a particular behavior
Drive theories of motivation assume the brain is storing energy for behavior
“Flush” model:
Once a behavior is started, it will continue until all the energy in its reservoir is gone
There are separate stores of energy for different behaviors |
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Term
| Innate releasing mechanism |
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Definition
Innate Releasing Mechanism (IRM)
Hypothetical mechanism that detects specific sensory stimuli and directs an organism to take a particular action
The brain must have a set of norms against which it can match stimuli so as to trigger an appropriate response
Although IRMs are prewired into the brain, they can be modified with experience |
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Term
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Definition
Discipline that seeks to apply principles of natural selection to understand the causes of human behavior
Behaviors exist because the neural circuits producing them have been favored through natural selection |
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Term
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Definition
Chemical senses
Receptors for Smell
Olfactory epithelium contains receptor cells and support cells; receptor cells send cilia into the olfactory mucosa
Airborne chemicals dissolve in the olfactory mucosa and interact with the cilia
Activation of metabotropic receptors leads to the opening of sodium channels and subsequent change in membrane potential |
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Term
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Definition
Olfactory Pathways
Olfactory cells project to the olfactory bulb, ending in tufts of dendrites called glomeruli
In the olfactory bulbs, synapses are formed with mitral cells, which then project to several areas of the forebrain
Pyriform cortex, entorhinal cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus, thalamus, and the orbitofrontal cortex |
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Term
| Brain analysis of common vs body odors |
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Definition
Human Olfactory Processing
Lundstrom and colleagues (2008)
The brain analyzes common odors and body odors differently
Body odors activate structures also activated by visually emotional stimuli
Smelling a stranger’s odor activates structures also activated by fearful visual stimuli |
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Term
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Definition
Receptors for Taste
Taste receptors are found within taste buds located throughout the mouth and nasopharynx
Five different taste-receptor types
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami
Gustatory stimuli interact with microvilli, located on the tips of receptors, to open ion channels and alter the membrane potential
Taste buds connect to cranial nerves 7 (facial), 9 (glossopharyngeal) and 10 (vagus) |
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Term
| B.F. Skinner and learning |
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Definition
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Suggested a strong role of learning in behavior
Reinforcer
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior that it follows
Experience shapes behavior by pairing stimuli and rewards
Many complex behaviors are learned, and learning takes place in a brain that has been selected for evolutionary adaptations |
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Term
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Definition
Acquired association between a specific taste or odor and illness
Leads to an aversion to foods having that taste or odor |
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Term
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Definition
Predisposition to respond to certain stimuli differently than other stimuli
Brain is prewired to make certain types of associations but not others |
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Term
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Definition
Emotion
Cognitive interpretation of subjective feelings
Motivation
Behavior that seems purposeful and goal directed
Neuroanatomy of Emotion and Motivation
Hypothalamus
Limbic System
Frontal Lobes |
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Term
| Motivated behavior: hypothalamus and pituitary gland |
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Definition
Pituitary Gland
Endocrine gland attached to the bottom of the hypothalamus
Its secretions control the activities of many other endocrine glands
Known to be associated with biological rhythms
Factors involved in controlling hypothalamic hormone-related activity
Feedback Loops
Control the amount of hormone that is released
Neural Regulation
Other brain regions (e.g., limbic system and frontal lobes) influence hormone release
Experiential Responses
Experience can alter the structure and function of hypothalamic neurons |
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Term
| Motivated behavior: limbic system |
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Definition
Neural Regulation
Other brain regions (e.g., limbic system and frontal lobes) influence hormone release |
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Term
| Motivated behavior: frontal lobes |
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Definition
Neural Regulation
Other brain regions (e.g., limbic system and frontal lobes) influence hormone release |
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Term
| Regulatory vs nonregulatory behavior |
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Definition
Regulatory Behavior
Behavior motivated to meet the survival needs of the animal
Controlled by homeostatic mechanisms, which involve the hypothalamus
Examples:
Internal body temperature
Eating and drinking
Salt consumption
Waste elimination
Nonregulatory Behavior
Behavior unnecessary to meet the basic survival needs of the animal
Not controlled by homeostatic mechanisms
Most involve the frontal lobes more than the hypothalamus
Strongly influenced by external stimuli
Examples:
Sexual behavior, parental behavior, aggression, food preference, curiosity, and reading |
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Term
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Definition
Involvement in Hormone Secretions
A principal function is to control the pituitary gland |
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Term
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Definition
Endocrine gland attached to the bottom of the hypothalamus
Its secretions control the activities of many other endocrine glands
Known to be associated with biological rhythms |
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Term
| Three regions of the hypothalamus |
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Definition
Lateral Region
Medial Region
Paraventricular Region |
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Term
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Definition
Contains nuclei and nerve tracts that connect the lower brainstem to the forebrain
Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB)
Tract that connects structures in the brainstem with various parts of the limbic system
Forms the activating projections form the brainstem to the basal ganglia and frontal cortex
Dopamine-containing fibers are involved in reward and therefore contribute to many motivated behaviors |
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Term
| Hypothalamic circuit: releasing hormones |
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Definition
| Peptides that are released by the hypothalamus and act to increase or decrease the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary |
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Term
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Definition
| Control the amount of hormone that is released |
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Term
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Definition
| Experience can alter the structure and function of hypothalamic neurons |
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Term
| Parts of the limbic circuit |
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Definition
look at clipping 6
- Cingulate gyrus
- Hippocampus
- Parahippocampal cortex
- Amygdala |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of the primitive limbic cortex |
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Term
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Definition
part of primitive limbic cortex
Hippocampal formation
Hippocampus
Distinctive three-layered subcortical structure of the limbic system lying in the medial temporal region of the temporal lobe
Plays a role in species-specific behaviors, memory, and spatial navigation
Vulnerable to the effects of stress |
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Term
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Definition
| part of primitive limbic cortex |
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Term
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Definition
In prefrontal cortex
Almond-shaped collection of nuclei located within the limbic system
Plays a role in emotional and species-specific behaviors
Receives input from all sensory systems
Many neurons respond to more than one sensory modality (multimodal)
Sends projections primarily to the hypothalamus and brainstem |
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Term
| Exectutive function of frontal lobes |
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Definition
- Motor cortex
- Premotor cortex
- Prefrontal cortex |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Selection of appropriate movement sequences |
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Term
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Definition
Prefrontal Cortex
Involved in specifying the goals toward which movement should be made
Dorsolateral and inferior regions |
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Term
| Projections to and from prefrontal regions |
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Definition
Receives connections from the amygdala, the dorsomedial thalamus, the posterior parietal (sensory association) cortex, and the dopaminergic cells of the ventral tegmental area
Dopaminergic input influences how prefrontal neurons react to stimuli, especially emotionally arousing stimuli
Inferior region projects to the amygdala and the hypothalamus: Influences autonomic nervous system
Dorsolateral region projects to the posterior parietal cortex, the cingulate cortex, the basal ganglia, and the premotor cortex: Influences movement and memory |
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Term
| James-Lang view of emotion |
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Definition
Physiological changes produced by the autonomic nervous system come first, and the brain interprets these changes as an emotion
Evidence: Intensity of emotions in individuals with spinal cord damage depends upon the level at which the spinal cord is severed |
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Term
| Somatic marker hypothesis |
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Definition
Somatic Marker Hypothesis (Damasio, 1999)
Posits that “marker” signals arising from emotions and feelings act to guide behavior and decision making, usually an unconscious process |
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Term
| Amygdala and emotional behavior |
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Definition
Involved in species-specific behaviors and emotion
Influences autonomic and hormonal responses via connections with the hypothalamus
Influences conscious awareness of the consequences of events and objects via connections with the prefrontal cortex
Klüver-Bucy Syndrome
Behavioral syndrome, characterized especially by hypersexuality, that results from bilateral injury to the temporal lobe |
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Term
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Definition
| Behavioral syndrome, characterized especially by hypersexuality, that results from bilateral injury to the temporal lobe |
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Term
| Two independent processes of reward |
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Definition
Reward has two independent processes: wanting (incentive) and liking (evaluation of pleasure)
Usually, wanting and liking occur together but this is not always the case
Robinson and Berridge (2008)
Wanting and liking have separable neural systems
Wanting: Involves dopamine
Liking: Involves opioid and benzodiazepine-GABA systems |
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