X-ray beam projected through head of patient to detector.

Series of ‘photos’ at each axis yields a 3-D representation.

Useful for telling when someone’s had a stroke, where the localization of this is.

Measures waves of activated hydrogen atoms when activated by radiofrequency waves in
magnetic field.  High SPATIAL resolution.

We can measure the energy levels of hydrogen in the brain.

Images of activity, not structure

Inject radioactive 2-DG into carotid artery, 

It’s only taken up by cells that are active, because that’s when they need the glucose. Then it doesn’t break down so well, and stays in the brain for abou 30 minutes. Then when we look at the brain, we can see the areas that have been lit up. Spatial resolution is poor.

Functional MRI

Shows increase in oxygen flow in active areas of the brain.
Provides both structural and functional information.
Better spatial resolution.

Combines the advantages of PET with the structural specificity of MRI. It allows us to look at activity in distinct, defined spaces. Works by showing increase in oxygen flow in active areas of the brain. The bold score is the level of oxygen in the blood. If it increases in some area, this area is becoming more active

The only problem: not temporally very precise. Takes minutes to work.

Magnetoencephalography

Measures changes in magnetic fields on the surface of the scalp.

Gross measure of electrical activity of the brain.
Measured through array of scalp electrodes.
Certain EEG wave forms associated with particular states of consciousness (like when we're asleep).

SCL: general level of conductance associated with a particular situation. Gives an idea of excitation of the nervous system.

i.   Electrocardiogram (ECG): shows change in cardiac function

ii.   Blood pressure: peak pressure during systoles over minimum pressure during diasatoles.

iii.   Plethysmography: volume of blood in body structure (e.g. penis). (sexual dysfunction)

Invasive physiological research methods: Stereotaxic surgery

surgical technique used in animal research to allow accurate placement of lesions, probes, electrodes, etc.

-employs stereotaxic atlas and stereotaxic instrument.

Invasive physiological research methods: Lesion technques

-aspiration: cortical tissue suctioned throgh fine-tipped pipette.

-Radio-frequency: passing high-frequency current through tissue from an electrode.

-Knife cuts: section small areas, such as a nerve or tract.

-Chemical lesions: inject selective neurotoxin into neurons.

effects are opposite to lesion, usually enhance neural functioning.

Peripheral/systemic routes: IP, IV, SC, IM, IG.

N.B.: many drugs cannot pass the blood-brain barrier!

Solution: Administer via intraventricular cannula or microinjection into brain tissue.

Radioactive 2-DG injected, animal performs behaviour of interest.

Animal sacrificed, brain xtracted, slices coated with photographic emulsion.

Areas active during behaviour show up as darker patches of radioactivity.

Measures specific amount of neurotransmitter

 U-shaped tube inserted into brain of animal, circulate artificial CSF.

Chemicals move from brain to solution in tube (down concentration gradient)

Analyzed using chromatography.

Inject antigens into animal /p>

creates antibodies to destroy it.

Antibodies for transmitters and receptors labelled with dye or radioactivity; used to identify specific neuroproteins in slices of tissue.

Also can be used for enzymes that produce transmitter, e.g., ChAT.

Allows peptides and proteins in the brain to be located.

Label hybrid RNA strands with base sequence complementary to RNA for target
protein.

Hybrid binds to complementary mRNA in target cell.

Replace one gene with another.

Transgenic subject: implanted genetic information from one species to another.

Aggressive behaviours usually ‘sideways’ approaches, piloerection, biting the back.

Defensive behaviours involve boxing, rolling onto back, biting the face, freezing, fleeing.

Lordosis quotient (a female receptive posture in quadrupeds in which the hindquarter is rased and the tail is turned to one side, facilitating intromission by the male).

Degree of concavity of ack during lordosis.

Mounts to intromission

Number of intromissions to ejaculation

Time to reinitiate mounting post-ejaculation.

CS (arches) + US (burger) 􀃆 UR (salivation)

CS 􀃆 CR (salivation) 

Operant Conditioning: Rate of response is increased by reinforcement, or decreased by punishment.

 Lever press -> sugar pellet.