1) Loss of Impairment: ACQUIRED disorder, normal function altered by damage to brain, NOT same as failure to develop normal language

2) Language: Semantic and Syntactic functions

-Focal brain damage associated with disordered speech/language

-Aphasia as a specific brain disorder was born

-Presents cases of language comprehension deficits in relation to brain damage

-Leads to models of brain-damage mechanisms

-Refined descriptions of language localization

-Pinpointed likely circuits in brain that would account for aphasic symptoms

1) Type of language manisfestation

2) Neuroanatomic locus

-Nonfluent aphasic output

-Speech labored and telographic; very few words

-Content words, devoid of grammatical morphemes

-Relatively good language comprehension

-Problem with analyzing and producing syntax, but NOT a motor problem

-damage in LEFT frontal lobe

-Verbal output fluent but full of neologisms and paraphasias

-Disturbance in comprehension

-Disorder of repitition

-In some, ability to comprehend spoken language worse than ability to comprehend written language

-Nonsense words

-Good grammatical morphemes

-Superior temporal lobe in LEFT hemisphere

-Fluent, but paraphasic output

-Relatively normal comprehension of speech

-Severe breakdown in repetition

-Naming abnormal

-Involves white matter beneath supramarginal gyrus

-Legion may possibly disconnect intact language comprehension from equally intact motor speech area

-Global Aphasia

-Transcortical motor

-Supplementary motor

-Sensory

-Mixed

-Word finding difficulties

-Fluent output, little or no paraphasia, good comprehension, repetition

-From almost anywhere in language area and some right hemisphere lesions

-Pure word dumbness

-Slow but grammatically intact verbal output

-"foreign accent syndrome" (disorder of rhythm, inflection, articulation characteristic of another language)

-Problem with reception of spoken language

-Cannot understand spoken language and cannot repeat

-Hearing is fine; can identify non-speech sounds

-Test batteries

-Interrelated language tests

-Tests that probe single language function such as naming: Boston Naming Test, Word Fluency Test

Comprehending: Speech sounds analyzed for physical properties in the auditory sensory area of temporal lobe

Understanding: Wernicke's area transforms basic meaning to be conveyed into a neural representation of a sequence of words. Representation sent to Broca's to be converted into a form that can be uttered. Sent to primary motor area of the forebrain which controls the muscles of speech

-Split brain syndrome

-useful ways of thinking of hierarchies in the structure of language

-reading

-other language phenomena

1) Top level: sentence itself

2) Sentence broken down into phrases

3) Phrases broken down into words or morphemes

4) Words/morphemes broken down into elementary vowel and consonant sounds called phonemes

-Suggested by Rumelhart and McClelland

-activation of particular lexical elements occurs at multiple levels

-activity at each level is interactive

-3 types of processing after visual input: feature, letter and word

-Information at each level is represented separately in memory

-Information passes from one level to the other bi-directionally

-Processing top-down AND bottom-up

-Neurons in auditory cortex become specialized to tune into certain sounds

-more ambiguous sounds have more neurons devoted to their perception

-Neuron representation devoted to clear sounds shrink over time with experience

-neurons no longer needed for one sound category can be used for another

English: sounds are ambiguous, so more cells used to distinguish between sounds

Japanese: less ambiguous, so less cells used

-Holds memory for a few seconds

-Generally not necessary to intentionally transfer information to STM

-Controlled processes may be applied to info, such as rehearsing and chunking

-Holds information indefinitely

-Not more durable version of STM

-Differs from STM because of the form in which info is stored in memory, way in which info is recalled, reasons that forgetting occurs, and physical location of functions in brain

Procedural: memory for skills and procedures, (how to ride a bike, kiss, eat, etc.)

Semantic: memory for meaning of something, (what "pudding" or "peace of mind" mean, etc.)

Episodic: stores info about certain things that happened at certain times and places. Less well stored than procedural and semantic

-Store information while working on it.

-Visuospatial Sketchpad: stores visual information

-Phonological Loop: stores auditory information independent of visual memory

-Central Executive: directs attention toward one stimulus or another

-Stored by prefrontal cortex.

-Memory depends on effective functioning of particular structures of the brain

-Functions can be stored by multiple structures or regions

-Most famous case: H.M. who underwent surgery to cure epilepsy. Got moderate retrograde amnesia and couldn't remember events after. Could define common words but not infrequently used words

-Critical role in declarative, explicit memory.

-Role in spatial memory.

-Release of adrenal hormones

-Integration and consolidation of separate sensory information. Transfer of newly synthesized information into long-term structures

Cerebral Cortex: long term storage of information

Amygdala: Memory consolidation where emotional experience is involved

Basal Ganglia: Primary structure for procedural knowledge

-Emotional arousal does not always lead to poor memory. Can sometimes improve memory.

-Memory of intensively negative events tend to be vivid but confused and less organized

-Flashbulb memories: of specific negative moments. often distorted.

-Important factor in neural changes during learning

-More synapse is used, more neural pathway is facilitated.

-Supported by Kandel. Classical conditioning: after, amount of neurotransmitter increased.

-Usually reversible

-No structural damage

-Immediate

-More damaging

-Bruising

-noticeable loss of function

-Collection of blood in one or several locations of the brain

-may be between brain covering and skull (epidural hematoma)

-May occur between brain membrane and brain (subdural hematoma)

-brain injuries relate to physical force

-blunt object to stationary head or hard surface that stops moving head

-nonpenetrating or blunt head injuries

-temporary loss of consciousness

-brain can suffer gross damage

-small object can penetrate

-whiplash could throw head in different directions

Non-fatal forms: diffuse axonal injury, diffuse hypoxic/anoxic/ischemic injury and diffuse swelling

Fatal: Diffuse vascular injury

Result from concussion or whiplash

1) Bruising (bleeding) blood vessels tear, blood pools and presses on sensitive tissue, tissue dies off and critical parts of brain stop working

2) Tearing- tiny tears occur. Microscopic.

3) Swelling- body realizes brain has been injured. Extra help sent to heal but little room in skull. Pressure builds up and damages parts of brain. Critical parts stop working.

4) Destruction of tissue: gunshot wound, etc.

5) Skull fractures: rough measure of impact sustained.

-brain comes into contact with bony parts of inner surface of skull

-Common sites of cerebral contusions are frontal and temporal lobes.

-"Coup-Contrecoup Injuries" Bruising of surface of brain beneath point of impact (coup lesion). Opposite side of point of impact are contrecoup. relative sparing of occipital lobes.

(missles and fragments)

Tangenital Injuries: scalp lacerations, depressed skull fractures, and meningeal and cerebral lacerations

Penetrating: in-driven metal particles, hair, skin and bone fragments

Through-and-Through: entry and exit

If brain penetrated at lower end of brainstem, death instantaneous. If vital centers untouched, immediate problems are intercranial bleeding and pressure.

-Initially speculated

-Difficult to study

-Used to track individual's progress in recovery. 8 levels

1) No Response

2) Generalized: responses limited and same regardles of stimuli presented.

3) Localized: Respond specifically but inconsistently to stimulus.

4) Confused/Agitated: Heightened state of activity with severely decreased ability to process information.

Problems following injury to cerebellum

-Most common syndrome with partial seizures

-Often associated with auras

-Usually develops in childhood

-Hippocampus may shrink

-Tied to limbic system

-Seizures provoked by flickering lights

-More females than males

1: Emotionality, manic tendencies, depression, humorlessness

2: altered sexuality, hostility, anger, aggression

3: Religiosity, nascent philosophical interest, augmented sense of personal destiny, dependence, passivity, paranoia, moralism, guilt, obsessionalism, circumstantiality, viscosity, hypergraphia

-Depression more likely to entail absence of pleasure

-Depression has a sense of hopelessness

-Depression associated with disengagement

-Depressed person feels that all is lost

-Sense of worthlessness and hopelessness

1) Major Depression: very severe symptoms, no remission for at least 2 weeks

2) Dysthmia: less severe symptoms, at least 2 years. Can have bouts of major depresson, called double depression.

Monoamine Approach: Depression results from too little activity in brain synapses using monoamine transmitters. (Dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine). Prozac acts specifically with serotonin

Hereditary

1) Tricyclics (make NTs stay in synapse for a longer time)

2) Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (Blocks MAO, more NTs available for release)

3) SSRI (similar to tricyclics but just for serotonin)

4) Atypical Antidepressants (Antidepressive effects, mild side effects)

-2 Types: Bipolar (severe) and Cyclothymia (less severe)

-High incidence of cyclothymia among artists and other creative types of people

-Absense of/reduction of expected thoughts, behaviors, ideas, etc.

-slowing down of body movements

-poverty of speech

-flattened affect

-loss of basic drives (hunger)

-loss of pleasure

Paranoid: delusions of persecution and grandeur, hallucinations

Catatonic: nonreaction to environment

Disorganized: disorganized speech and behavior, inappropriate or flattened affect,

-Prenatal or birth traumas

-Prenatal lack of nutrition

-Prenatal viral infections

-Brain chemistry

-Schizophrenia arises from over-activity at the brain synapses where dopamine is the neurotransmitter

-Original form of theory too simple

-Now, its unusual patterns of dopamine activity. Decreased activity in prefrontal cortex.

-Antipsychotic drugs may reduce symptoms.

-Deficient glutamate has same impact as increased dopamine

-lower amounts of glutamate in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. lower glutamate receptors.

-Block postsynaptic dopamine receptors

-Benefits are from effects on mesolimbocortical system

-Drugs that affect them at other sites can produce tardive dyskenisia (tremors and involuntary movements)

-Enlargement of cerebral ventricles

-Reduced amount of neural tissue around ventricles

-Decreased neural mass in temporal and frontal lobes and thalamus

-Abnormalities of varietes and arrangements of neurons in cortex

-Severe memory loss with aging

-strikes 50% of those over 85

-better procedural than declarative memory

-genetic components and environmental components

-brain proteins fold abnormally, clump together and interfere with normal neuronal activity

-Plaques and tangles

-Elevated levels of glucose and insulin enhance memory

-Drugs that increase acetycholine activity increase some aspects of memory

-Diet rich in anti-oxidants

-Gradual progressive death of neurons, especially in substantia nigra. Decrease in dopamine.

-slow cognitive tasks

-depression and cognitive defects but no emotional outbursts

-Rigidity, muscle tremors, slow movements, difficulty initiating physical and mental activity

-Genetic

-Exposure to toxins

-Smoking and caffeine decrease risks?

-Most common treatment for Parkinson's

-Precursor for dopamine that crosses blood-brain barrier

-Doesn't stop progression of disease

-Dopamine plays a central role in in behavioral enforcement

-Events may stimulate release of dopamine

-Addicting drugs cause release of dopamine in nucleus accumbens

-Produce excitement, alertness, elevated mood, decreased fatigue, increased motor activity

-Increase activity at dopamine synapses

-Decrease overall activity of brain, but stimuli are more arousing

Amphetamine: increase release of dopamine from presynaptic terminals

Cocaine: blocks reuptake of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine, prolonging effects.

Methlyphenidate (Ritalin): often for ADHD. gradual increase and decline to reduce risk of addiction. Increases serotonin for calming effect.

MDMA (ecstasy): low performance on memory tests

Nicotine: stimulates dopamine release. In nucleus accumbens.

-Derived from opium poppy

-Morphine, heroin and methodone

-Addictive when not used as painkillers

-Produces dopamine, blocks GABA

-Reduce stress, decrease memory storage

-THC, intensifies sensory experiences

-Used to relieve pain, nausea and glaucoma

-Some memory impairments

-Can increase long-term depression and weaken normal neural memory connections

-Limits release of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters

-LSD stimulates serotonin receptors at inappropriate times for longer than normal duration.

-Distort perception

-Most widely used drug

-Alcoholism: when it interferes with person's life and healthy functioning

Effects: inhibits flow of sodium across membranes and increases membranes, decreases serotonin, facilitates response by GABA receptor, blocks glutamate receptors, increases dopamine

Type 1 (A): later onset, gradual onset, less genetic relatives with alcoholism, men and women equally, less severe

Type 2 (B): Early, rapid onset, genetic relatives with alcoholism, more in men, very severe, associated with criminality, genetic basis

Antabuse: moderately effective in treating alcoholism.

Stops metabolism of ethyl alcohol by antagonizing effects of enzyme that converts acetycholine into acetic acid. Nausea, headache and stomach pain when alcohol is injested.

-Person high in sensation seeking more likely to be heavy alcohol drinker

-Sons of alcoholics report low intoxication feelings after drinking, like feeling less drunk. More likely to abuse within 8 years of finding. Report more tension from drinking. Smaller than normal amygdala.

-Binet-Simon Intelligence Testing

-To determine grade level student should be in

-Intelligence not just hereditary, not one single entity

-higher-order mental abilities related to one another

-nurtured through interaction with environment

-concept of mental level

-Developed by Lewis Terman

-Mental age by chronolocal age x 100

-Most widely used test of general intelligence

-Original test modeled after Binet's test

-Intelligence as an inherited property of the nervous system. Varies from person to person.

-Makes some able to learn more from experiences or reason logically.

-Neural quickness and sensory acuity- speed and accuracy with which they could detect and respond to stimuli.

-NOT successful!

-British psychologist and mathemitician

-Liked Galton's idea of intelligence as a single entity. Objected Galton's tests of motor and sensory abilities.

-Liked Binet's tests of memory, understanding and reasoning

-Came up with factor analysis.

-By Spearman

Factors: memory, pattern perception, logic and verbal fluency

-Scores on tests positively correlated with scores on other tests

-Called "g" general intelligence and "s" specific ability. G is NOT biological.

Divided "g" into crystallized and fluid.

Crystallized: ability derived directly from previous experiences.

Fluid: Ability to perceive relationships independent of previous specific practice or instruction

-Correlate moderately well with grades in school

-in north america, likelihood of achieving a high-ranking job has more to do with parents' socioeconomic class than IQ score.

-Sternberg.

-Control mental resources in a way that allows for efficiency in problem solving

-Componential model of intelligence

Prefrontal system, temporolimbic system and posterior parietal system.

-Different permutations of functions and interactions between 3 systems provide a central explanatory framework for explaining differnt forms of intelligence (and some aspects of personality)

1) Logical-Mathematical

2) Visuo-spatial

3) Kinesthetic

4) Musical

5) Interpersonal

6) Intrapersonal

7) Natural

8) Existential

9) Linguistic