Term
| Animals models can be used to explore the function of this system |
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Definition
| Nervous System-Humans have the same basic neural circuitry that is found in a rodent |
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Term
| How do rodents avoid predators? |
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Definition
| They can smell their odors |
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Term
| Animals have _______ responses, why is this adaptive? |
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Definition
| Innate, if they did not have innate predation and defensive behaviors they would have to learn the hard way (e.g., get captured) species would die out |
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Term
| How can animal behavior helps us with complex human behavior? |
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Definition
Complex human conditions can be modeled in animals if some of the same circuitry has been preserved throughout the evolutionary process.
(e.g., PTSD and fear response) |
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Term
| What are 3 methods used to manipulate and examine the nervous system and are they used on humans or animals? |
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Definition
Brain imaging (human)
Stereotaxic (animal)
Histological (animal) |
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Term
| What are two methods that help us to modify and assess genetics? |
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Definition
Histological
Gene modification |
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Term
| What are two methods that help us to influence and observe behavior? |
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Definition
Standard observations
Animal models |
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Term
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Definition
Positron emission tomography assesses the distribution of radioactive glucose during behavior
Dependent on distribution of glucose when cells use more energy they show up more |
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Term
| What are some limitations to PET scan? |
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Definition
Spatial resolution is limited
We have to infer where the lit up area is, does not tell us about cells involved
It’s expensive and labor intensive
Select groups studied because of cost-hard to generalize |
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Term
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Definition
| MRI: A technique whereby the interior of the body can be accurately imaged; involves the interaction between radio waves and a strong magnetic field |
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Term
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Definition
A functional imaging method; a modification of the MRI procedure that permits the measurement of regional metabolism in the brain, usually by detecting changes in BOLD (blood oxygen level)
Assesses degress to which brain areas are using oxygen examining impact of tumor for example on function |
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Term
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Definition
An imaging method that uses a modified MRI scanner to reveal bundles of myelinated axons in the living human brain
Can sees which fibers are affected by tumor that are connected to areas of the brain |
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Term
| Limitations of brain imaging |
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Definition
| people can be thinking about different things |
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Term
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Definition
| How are brain areas connected and coactivated, draw conclusions about connections in the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| Brain surgery using a stereotaxic (ability to locate objects in space) apparatus to position an electrode or cannula in a specified position of the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| contains a holder that fixes the animals head in a standard position and a carrier that moves an electrode or cannula through measured distances in all three axes of space (using a stereotaxic atlas) |
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Term
| Examples of Stereotaxic techniques |
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Definition
Lesion
Electrophysiology
Drug microinjections
Microdialysis
Tract tracing |
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Term
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Definition
Examine if lesion disrupts brain function
Put in apparatus, cut open scalp, drill hole, insert electrode, lower it to depth turn on lesion maker/start infusion
(control group undergoes same procedure but without actual placement of lesion) |
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Term
| Explain electrophysiology |
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Definition
Electrodes pick up on change in electric potential of many cells at the same time
e.g., more activity more likely to drink more alcohol |
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Term
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Definition
Study to see change in waves?
And example slide 8 of methods |
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Term
| Drug microinjection studies* |
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Definition
what brain area does the chemical injected have an impact on
and example slide 10? |
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Term
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Definition
| A probe is impanted in a brain site and the extracellular neurotransmitter can be measured during somewhat normal behavior, the HPLC produces a record of what is in the sample, which is compared to standards to determine the amount of neurotransmitter in order to examine the change in neurotransmitter release |
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Term
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Definition
can know path of neurotransmitter?
know where it ended up, therefore connected to where it was injected (retrograde)
post synpatic membrane transport to cell body get idea of where receiving neuron was going (anterograde) |
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Term
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Definition
| In order to determine the precise location of brain damage (after testing animal behaviorally for example) we must fix, slice, stain, and examine the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| identifies location of proteins and some neurotransmitters |
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Term
| Cell with black and brown dots-example of immunohistochemistry |
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Definition
| stained for fos and serotonin, how many active cells, how many active serotonin cells (involved in defense mechanism) |
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Term
| example of immunohistology |
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Definition
| Immune cells are attracted to degenerating areas, put something in immune cells want delivered to that area, would microphage stop that degeneration Dopamine cells that get released in basal ganglia (SN) for parkinson these cells degenerate Develop this to treat parkinsons |
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Term
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Definition
| Dendritic arrangements are different, this brain area is responsible for translating response to alcohol, change in neural connections due to alcohol (looking at structure of dendrite) |
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Term
| 3 types of genetic manipulation |
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Definition
Transgenic: insert a gene
Knock out: delete a gene
Knock down: inactivate a gene |
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Term
| Light transgenic phosphor gene? |
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Definition
| shine light causes genes to turn on |
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Term
| Explain breeding and genotypes in mice |
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Definition
Way animals are bred allows researcher to have population of mice that differ in their genotype
+/-: intermediate level of protein
Compare ++ - - and +- in terms of behavior
(e.g., if no leptin marker becomes obese) |
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Term
| Limitations/Advantages of different gene manipulations |
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Definition
Concern: genes don’t act alone, they act in interaction with other genes
Knock down approach is important because the effect could be due to developmental process gone awry
Better to let it develop on its own and then manipulate it at a relevant point
Animal grew up without gene prior to this developing and that was harder to assess |
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Term
| How to examine defensive behavior in mice |
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Definition
Predator odor-induced defense: anxiety
How much they peep out, freeze to avoid detection, bury source of odor dif defensive behavior |
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Term
| How to examine pain sensitivity in mice |
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Definition
Time it takes them to flip tail away after shock
Can manipulate with morphine
Same dose réponse curve |
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Term
| How to examine spatial learning and memory |
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Definition
Morris water maze, can they find the platform, measure by time spent in quadrant after platform taken away for memory
Can manipulate hippocampus which is same as humans |
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Term
| How yo measure anxiety in rats |
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Definition
Elevated plus maze
give them anti alytic
do they spend more or less time in exposed areas |
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Term
| Conditioned place preference |
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Definition
| Condition rat to prefer one side, will spend more time on side where drug was administered, will show prefer for that context to the extent the drug is appealingonly indication of how much the rat liked the drug aside of from physiological effects |
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Term
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Definition
| Compulsive checking: represents rat’s activity for visits to objects, gave them saline or dopamine agonist (OCD) (A and B), C-cloripimime treats OCD, D-control, a lot more activity in A B C than D even though D is 60 min and others are 15 min |
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Term
| Learned helplessness (Control, Yoked, Restraint) |
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Definition
Control-able to hit wheel to turn off the shock, will learn to turn off the shock
Restraint-no shock but stuck
Yoked-controlled by control, shock will turn off when control turns its off but its behavior has no impact on their pain
Shuttle box: moving from one side to the other will turn off the shock, control and restraint will be able to do it
Yoked will not be able to make a connection between behavior and shock, will crossover at first but then will just stay and give up
Might be a model of depression |
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Term
|
Definition
| Same profile of drug effects: model shows same drug response you would see in humans (same time frame as humans) |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
what causes change in behavior in yoked animals has to be the same cause that causes change in behavior in humans, very difficult, learned helplessnessdon’t have control over environment
Similarity of etiology/drug mechanisms |
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Term
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Definition
| refers to the process of transduction of environmental energy to a neural signal (retina). It involves the receptors that respond to specific types of stimuli. |
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Term
|
Definition
| refers to the process of interpreting and modifying the neural signals that result from sensation (cortex). |
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Term
|
Definition
Info sent to nervous is modified due to background
Receptors respond to certain wavelength but due to context the nervous system interprets differently |
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Term
| Differences in input/dif between cranial and peripheral nerve? |
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Definition
Cranial-->brainstem
Sensory nerve-->spinal cord |
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Term
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Definition
| Peripheral come through spinal cord, cranial come through brainstem, get sent either direct to thalamus or modified at midbrain, the thalamus (which is the relay station for sensory info) organizes the info to the relevant cortical area (primary or non primary) and then it might get sent back through the thalamus and modified again |
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Term
| Stimulus and receptors for vision |
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Definition
| electromagnetic waves/ rods and cones |
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Term
Somatosensation, proprioception, and pain
Stimulus
Receptors |
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Definition
Pressure, vibration, temperature,
Tissue damage
Specialized and free nerve endings |
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Term
| Slide 3 SPM need to know all systems? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| Topographic organization? |
|
Definition
spatial organization
visual field cortex
hand certain spot in cortex versus elsewhere |
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Term
| Hierarchical organization |
|
Definition
follows specific path
Receptor -> intermediate pathway -> primary cortex -> association cortex |
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Term
|
Definition
| Sensory information crosses to opposite cortex (usually…) |
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Term
|
Definition
| Receptors sensitive to dif wavelength depending on rods and cones Dist of those receptors differ depending on where in the retina, and the relationship to output cell (fovea-one to one) |
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Term
| Central versus peripheral acuity |
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Definition
| Greater acuity in central because info is not being deluded as it is in the periphery, more detail in center of retina (more cones), periphery more rods, |
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Term
|
Definition
| Receptive area in center/periphery of retina conveys info to bipolar cells (for periphery the bipolar cells can be connected to more than one receptors and has to integrate info/influenced by all), the info then gets sent to the ganglion cells which are the output cells to the retina |
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Term
| The primary visual pathway |
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Definition
Most ganglion cells in retina send info through this pathway
Visual field>Optic nerve>Optic chiasm (info crosses over here)>Lateral geniculate nucleus>Primary visual cortex |
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Term
| What types of organization does the Thalamus use? |
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Definition
| The thalamus is organized by layers which get info from different source Relates to form and source of info Segregation of info |
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Term
|
Definition
Where processing
Primary visual cortex>visual association cortex in posterior parietal |
|
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Term
|
Definition
what processing
Primary visual>visual assocation cortex (inferior temporal cortex) |
|
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Term
| Explain pathway of ventral and dorsal |
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Definition
| Processed for elemental features and then higher meaning is assigned when processed in other brain areas |
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Term
|
Definition
| Inability to recognize faces |
|
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Term
| Development of facial recognition |
|
Definition
| Facial recognition develops over time, beginning with innate attention to faces during the first days of life. |
|
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Term
| Where is facial recognition located |
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
Specialized covering of free nerve ending is going to respond differently
Ion channels in the end of the free nerve ending, when we press down on pacinian the nerve will stretch and it mechanically opens the sodium channels and the sodium goes through, more pressure equals more likely to send an action potential |
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Term
Pacinian corpuscle
Slide 14-what's important? adapting? |
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Definition
large vague borders
fast adapting? |
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Term
|
Definition
Dorsal column: pressure, texture, forms of touch or precisely localized info
Spinothalamic: pain and temperature or imprecisely localized info
Separate at spinal cord and medulla, come together at midbrain and primary somatosensory cortex |
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Term
| What does the homunculus represent? |
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Definition
The homunculus demonstrates the distorted representation of the body on the cortex
Have a lot more sensory info in mouth and hands (somatographic) |
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Term
| Representation of body surface in somatosensory cortex |
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Definition
Type of info being processed has different area for being processed e.g.
3-thalamus
2-size and shape
1-texture |
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Term
| How is the somatosensory cortex organized? |
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Definition
| topographically and segregation of info |
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Term
|
Definition
| Cognitive system, motivation affective system (emotion) and sensory discriminative system (helps us overcome) |
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Term
| Motivational affective system pathway |
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Definition
| Spinal cord (peripheral info) back to mas then all go to motor response mechanism |
|
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Term
| Why would unmyelinated sensory fibers (C fibers) be advantageous? |
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Definition
Fast fibers tell us where and how intense the pain was but c fibers (carry info slowly) allow pain to linger to keep our attention on the injured to protect it,
Retrograde release of Substance P from C-fiber promotes sensitization of tissue surrounding the original damage |
|
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Term
| Explain ascending and descending and systems involved |
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Definition
| Frontal cortex and thalamic nuclei (forebrain->PAG (midbrain)->Reticular formation->Pons->Medulla->Spinal cord |
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Term
|
Definition
Block the pain signal own opiates are activated under certain cirucmstances to suppress pain
Morphine mimics this process
Dangerous situations
Adrenaline rush-PAG
Later c fibers kick in |
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Term
| Motor cortex and motor homunculus |
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Definition
| Very fine motor control of muscles in the topographic organization, each muscle fiber has independent organization in cortex |
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Term
|
Definition
| Cortico (starts at primary motor cortex) spinal (down to spine): the main pathway that governs fine motor function of fingers and hands |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Rubrospinal: helps move the hands into position so that the corticospinal can do its job |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Corticobulbar: controls movement of the face, neck and tongue |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| walking-due to location controls certain muscles in leg |
|
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Term
|
Definition
walking-controls other muscles in the leg
alternates with lateral to allow for walking |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| tells primary what to do “knows the sequence from prior learning” |
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|
Term
| Cortical control of movement path |
|
Definition
| Visual/Audio perceptions and memories and perception of space-->plan movement in prefrontal-->premotor cotex or supplementary motor area-->primary motor cortex |
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Term
|
Definition
Ventral premotor and inferior parietal lobule
learn from watching others
Imagining is directly tied to actual motor function
Helps with sympathy, can experience facial expression ourself and feel it ourself |
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Term
| Cerebellum and basal ganglia with motor function |
|
Definition
Cerebellum takes somatosensory info and adjusts motor function accordingly
Basal ganglia-changing gears, ongoing behavior rewards (e.g., enjoying knitting continue knitting) with prefrontal cortex makes you stop knitting |
|
|
Term
| when you sleep these things change |
|
Definition
Temperature drops
K+ excretion dorps?
Plasma cortisol rises before you wake up to mobilize the energy a person needs for the day
Growth hormone performs necessary repairs |
|
|
Term
| Where is the endogenous clock located? |
|
Definition
| The suprachiasmatic nucleus |
|
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Term
|
Definition
SCN controlled by E clock which controls Timing mechanism
Neural pathway
Light as a zeitgeber
Chemical diffusion mechanism
Activity
Melatonin
human circadian cyclesleep is result |
|
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Term
|
Definition
is one of many nuclei in the hypothalamus, a few of which are governed by circadian and seasonal rhythms.
most activity during day, above chiasm, dictation to other brain areas controls whether you're awake, SCN is timekeeper |
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Term
| Intrinsic cellular clock mechanism |
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Definition
Protein enters nucleus suppressing the gene responsible for its production. Level of protein falls so the gene becomes active again. The gene is active messenger RNA leaves the nucleus and causes the production of the protein. Per 1,2,3 involved in sleep
"Multiple proteins are regulated through effects on gene transcription"
Process takes 24 hours |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Per 2 mutation advanced sleep phase syndrome (fall asleep early)
Per 3 mutation delayed sleep phase syndrome (can't fall asleep) |
|
|
Term
| The SCN is connected to structures that allow it to respond to light and to influence circadian rhythms |
|
Definition
| Melatonin-SCN stimulates sympathetic stim pineal gland which released melatonin which happens at beginning of sleep cycle depending on signals from the SCN |
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Term
| Activity cycles depend on the endogenous clock and light |
|
Definition
Peak activity levels shift every day without natural light
The clock is not getting reset |
|
|
Term
| Sleep is regulated by multiple mechanisms |
|
Definition
Circadian influences determine when sleep occurs
Chemical and neural influences determine how sleep proceeds |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Awake (beta)
Just before sleep (alpha)
Stage 1 (Theta)-transition
Stage 2(Theta plus sleep spindle and k complex)-transition
Stage 3 (delta)-SWS
Stage 4(delta)-SWS
REM sleep=paradoxical theta and beta |
|
|
Term
| What does synchronization (spindles, k complex, slow wave) indicate is happening |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of REM and SWS |
|
Definition
REM promotes development and serves procedure memory
SWS provides rest and serves declarative memory |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks
Associated symptoms
Cataplexy-can’t keep body upright
Sleep paralysis-feel as though awake but unable to move, act out what brain is doing
Hypnagogic hallucinations-rem sleep starts without loss of consciousness
Lack of orexin neurons |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Can be co-morbid: depression, anxiety, gastrointestinal disorders, pain; If left untreated, can make comorbid disorders worse
Linked to memory deficits, obesity
Treatments include:
Behavioral therapies that focus on sleep hygiene
Drugs |
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