Term
| What is Inheritance/Heredity? |
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Definition
| The Transmission of characters from one generation to the next |
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Term
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Definition
| A heritable feature the varies among individuals |
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Term
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Definition
| Each variation of a character |
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Term
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Definition
| When offspring differ somewhat in appearance from parents and siblings |
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Term
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Definition
| The scientific study of heredity and heritable variation |
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Term
| What happens in meiosis if an organism has only one pair of chromosomes? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What does it mean if a genotype is homozygous dominant? |
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Definition
| When an individual has the same allele at a particular locus and they are both dominant |
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Term
| What does it mean if a genotype is homozygous recessive? |
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Definition
| When an individual has the same allele at a particular locus and they are both recessive |
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Term
| What does it mean if a genotype is heterozygous? |
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Definition
| It is when an individual has two different alleles at a particular locus |
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Term
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Definition
| A phenotype is the total physical appearance of the organism (but it can include things that are not so obvious like blood type, behavior, metabolic processes, etc) |
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Term
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Definition
| It is the genetic makeup of an organism |
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Term
| What is independent assortment? |
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Definition
| It is when there is a 50/50 chance that the sister chromatids will end up on one side or the other. |
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Term
| What does independent assortment look like? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What does crossing over look like? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| When homologous chromosomes exchange parts |
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Term
| What are recombinant chromosomes? What allows for lots of recombination in humans? |
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Definition
Chromosomes that carry genes from both parents
*In humans, we have 1-3 events of crossing over per chromosome pair which allows for lots of recombination |
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Term
| What are some sources of variation? |
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Definition
1. Mutation
2. Independent assortment
3. Random Mating
4. Crossing over |
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Term
| What does it mean when you say that inheritance is particulate? |
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Definition
-Parents pass on discrete units to children called genes
-your collection of genes is more like a deck of cards than a bucket of paint |
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Term
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Definition
| It is a crossing of two true breeding varieties |
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Term
| What is an example of hybridization in mendelian genetics? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is Mendal's Law of Segregation? |
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Definition
1. Alternate versions (alleles) of genes account for variations in inherited traits
2. For each trait, an organism inherits two alleles (one from each parent)
3. If the alleles differ, the dominant allele will determine the phenotype for that trait
4. The two alleles for each trait segregate during gamete formation (meiosis) |
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Term
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Definition
| It is a useful way for predicting the allele composition of offspring from a cross between individuals of known genetic makeup |
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Term
| What does Mendal's model predict for the F1 generation? |
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Definition
| It predicts that the F1 offspring will have half the gametes produced by the offspring will have P and the other half of the gametes will have p. |
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Term
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Definition
| The number of ways a particular event can occur divided by the number of possible outcomes |
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Term
| What is the product rule? |
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Definition
The probability that two independent events occur is the product of their probability.
Ex. If Someone had Kids, and the first two kids that they had were girls, what is the probability that they will have another girl?
FIRST GIRL: 1/2, SECOND GIRL: 1/2
Probability of having another girl is: 1/2 x 1/2=1/4 |
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Term
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Definition
P(rolling 2 ones or 2 sixes) = 1/18
Rolling two die
P(1 one) = 1/6
P(2 ones) = 1/6 X 1/6 = 1/36
P(2 sixes) = 1/6 X 1/6 = 1/36
P(2 ones or 2 sixes) = 1/36 + 1/36 = 1/18 |
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Term
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Definition
The probability of 2 mutually exclusive events (events that cannot occur together) is the sum of the individual probabilities.
EX. If two individuals mated, Pp x Pp, What is the probability of have the following genotypes: PP, Pp, pP?
Probability of PP= 1/2 x 1/2 = 1/4
Probability of Pp= 1/2 x 1/2 = 1/4
Probability of pP= 1/2 x 1/2 = 1/4
Probability of Heterozygote: 1/4 + 1/4 = 1/2
Probability of pp= 1/2 x 1/2 = 1/4 |
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Term
| What was Mendal's law of segregation derived from? (a.k.a, how many characters did he focus on) |
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Definition
| It was derived from crosses looking at only 1 character at a time. |
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Term
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Definition
| F1 progeny of true breeding parents |
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Term
| What is a mono-hybrid cross? |
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Definition
| A cross between heterozygotes |
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Term
| What is dependent assortment? |
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Definition
| It is when pairs of alleles do not sort out independently of each other |
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Term
| What does dependent assortment look like? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the law of independent assortment? |
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Definition
| Mendal's second law that stated "the inheritance pattern of one trait will not affect the inheritance pattern of another." |
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Term
| Why do you get independent assortment? |
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Definition
| When genes are on different chromosomes and are from from each other, independent assortment is likely |
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Term
| What kind of gametes result from independent assortment? |
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Definition
| Independent assortment results in 4 gametes that have genetically unique chromosomes |
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Term
What are the 4 possible allele combinations in the 4 gametes that form during meiosis, given this parental genotype?
YyRr |
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Definition
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Term
| Given these 2 parents, PPYy X PpYY, what percent of offspring will have the genotype PPYY? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are some problems with Mendal's hypothesis? |
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Definition
1. A single gene can produce many phenotypes
2. Some alleles are not completely dominant or recessive
3. There can be more than 2 alleles |
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Term
| What is incomplete Dominance? |
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Definition
| It is when neither allele is completely dominant |
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Term
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Definition
| When the two alleles both affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways. Ex. Blood Type |
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Term
| What is polygenic inheritance? |
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Definition
| It is an additive effect of 2 or more genes on a single character. Ex. Skin color |
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Term
| What are some Recessively Inherited Genes that obey simple mendelian genetics? |
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Definition
1. Cystic Fibrosis
2. Albinism
3. Tay-Sachs Disease |
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Term
| What are some dominantly inherited diseases that obey Mendalian genetics? |
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Definition
-Achondroplasia
-Hunginton's Disease
-Polydactyly |
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Term
| Why is that in most dominantly inherited diseases, they can not be so severe as to cause death before reproduction? |
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Definition
| Because alleles for these disorders can not hide in carriers |
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Term
| What kind of errors in meiosis can cause some genetic disorders? |
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Definition
Errors in meiosis can be caused by:
1. Non disjunction of homologous chromosomes in meiosis one
2. Non disjunction of sister chromatids in meiosis 2 |
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Term
| What are some Genetic Disorders that result from errors in meiosis? |
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Definition
1. Down Syndrome: Trisonomy 21, It has characteristic facial features, heart defects, and mental retardation
2. Klinefelter Syndrome: XXY: results in small testes, sterility, and some female body characteristics
3. Turner Syndrome: X: Results in sterility |
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Term
| What is a pedigree analysis? |
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Definition
| When geneticists collect info about a family's history for a particular trait and assemble this information into a family tree describing the interrelationships of parents and children across generations |
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Term
| How many copies of a particular gene do women and men need in order to have sex linked diseases? |
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Definition
Women need to have both copies of gene in order to have the disease.
Men only need one copy of a gene in order have the disease |
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Term
| What does it mean, when one says that theoretically populations are "ideal"? |
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Definition
| It means that individuals move about randomly and have equal access to all other individuals as potential mates |
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Term
| What does it mean when one says, Realistically, Populations are "structures in space"? |
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Definition
| It means that matings occur at random with sub-populations, but barriers between sub-populations restrict access to mates |
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Term
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Definition
| It is all the alleles at all the gene loci in all the individuals in a population |
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Term
| What is it mean when an Allele is fixed? |
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Definition
| There is only one allele that exists at a particular locus |
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Term
| Why is it helpful to learn the genetics of a population? |
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Definition
1. It provides a foundation for studying evolution
2. Genes are the smallest units of evolution |
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Term
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Definition
| It is the change in genetic makeup (allele frequencies) of a population from generation to generation. (e.g micro-evolution) |
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Term
| Individuals do not evolve but : ... |
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Definition
1. They do survive to reproduce more than others and pass on their genes. Ex. Natural Selection
2. mutations in the genome of individuals can spread through the population
3. some genes enter and leave the gene pool
4. by chance, the genetic makeup changes over generations. Some traits are lost and other traits become more common |
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Term
| Why aren't changes in an individuals phenotype passed on to offspring? |
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Definition
| Because evolution "is in the genes" |
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Term
| What is a Particulate Hypothesis? |
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Definition
| Parents pass on discrete heritable unites (genes) that retain their identity in offspring |
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Term
| What is the source of all genetic variation? |
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Definition
1. Mutation: (Mutations in body cells are lost when the organism dies. Only sex cell mutation can be passed on)
2. Sexual Reproduction: Genetic variation in a population results from the unique combination of alleles that each individual receives form its parent. By either crossing over, independent assortment, or fertilization |
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Term
| What are Genotype Frequencies? |
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Definition
The percentage of specific genotypes in a population.
Ex. If there are 100 individuals that have a particular genotype, how many alleles do they have? 200 |
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Term
| What are the 9 Assumptions of the Hardy Weinberg Theorem? |
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Definition
1. The organism is diploid
2. Reproduction is sexual
3. Generations are non-overlapping
4. Mating is random
5. Population size is very large
6. Migration is negligible
7. Mutation can be ignored
8. Natural selection does not affect the alleles under consideration
9. The alleles under consideration are not on the sex chromosomes |
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Term
| What is the Hardy Weinberg Theorem? |
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Definition
| The frequency of alleles and genotypes in a populations gene pool remain constant from generation to generation |
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Term
| Even though the 9 assumptions of the Hardy Weinberg Theorem are unrealistic, why is it useful? |
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Definition
1. It explains how genetic variation is preserved
2. It provides a benchmark to compare to other populations |
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Term
| What does it mean when the population is in equilibrium? |
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Definition
Populations that do not deviate significantly from the predictions of the theorem are said to be in "equilibrium"
i.e no change in allele frequency = no evolution |
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Term
Under the Hardy Weinberg Theorum what does:
-P, q, P2, q2, and 2(pq) stand for?
-What is the formula for genotype frequency?
-What is the formula for allele frequency? |
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Definition
P = Frequency of the occurrence of the dominant allele
q= Frequency of the occurrence of the recessive allele
P2= Frequency of the PP genotype in the next generation
q2= Frequency of the qq genotype in the next generation
2(pq)= Frequency of the heterozygous genotype in the next generation
The Formula for Genotype Frequencies:
P2 + 2(pq) + q2 = 1
The Formula for Allele Frequencies:
P + Q = 1 |
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Term
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Definition
1. Non Random Mating: preference for mating
2. Gene Flow: Individuals migrating in or out of their population
3. Natural Selection: Selection acting differentially on some portion of the population
4. Random Drift: (the founder effect) |
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Term
| What is Aristotle's "Scale of Nature"? |
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Definition
| Each life form has its alloted rung, every rung is taken. Species are permanent, perfect, and do not evolve |
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Term
| What is Natural Theology? |
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Definition
| God had formed all species just as they appear, no genealogical relationships exist between them. Adaptations were evidence that god had created creatures for specific purposes. Classifying organisms revealed the steps in the scale of life that god had created |
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Term
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Definition
| He specialized in taxonomy. he used a nesting classification system and it is still used today. |
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Term
| What did Linneaus try to discover? |
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Definition
| He sought to discover the diversity of life only "for the greater glory of god" and he applied no evolutionary kinship among his groups |
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Term
| What were components that helped Darwin's ideas of evolution? |
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Definition
1. Linneaus's Taxonomic System
2. Fossils and Geology |
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Term
| What do fossil layers show? When did the study of fossils begin? |
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Definition
| Fossil layers show that a succession of organisms have populated earth through out time. The study of fossils largely began with the french anatomist Georges Cuvier |
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Term
| What did Georges Cuvier infer? |
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Definition
| Based on the study of fossils, he inferred that extinction has been common in life's history, but he strongly opposed the idea of evolution |
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Term
| What did James Hutton Believe? |
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Definition
| He believed that earths geological features are explained by Gradualism. Big changes are the cumulative process of small slow continuous changes |
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Term
| What did Charles Lyell believe? |
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Definition
| He believed that geological processes have not changed ruing earth's history, rates and forces of these changes have remained constant |
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Term
| What is Lamarcks Mechanism of Inheritance of Acquired Traits? |
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Definition
| Characteristics acquired or lost during an organisms life time through use or disuse can be passed on |
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Term
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Definition
| Lamarck claimed that evolution was the best explanation for the fossil record and the diversity of life, especially in its emphasis on adaptation and the very great age of the earth |
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Term
| What are the two main points in Darwins book, The origin of species? |
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Definition
1. Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life
2. Natural selection is the mechanism behind this process |
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Term
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Definition
| Accumulation of changes with the transformation of one species to another. Those processes can lead to change with in a population (or species) but no increase in the number of species |
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Term
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Definition
| It is branching off of one or more new species from a parent species that continues to exist. It increases the number of species |
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Term
| What is The Biological Species Concept? |
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Definition
| IT defines species as a population or group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring. They are reproductively isolated form other such populations. It explains how species arise and how to identify species. |
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Term
| What are pre and post zygotic barriers? |
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Definition
Pre Zygotic Barriers: impede mating or hinder fertilization if mating does occur
Post Zygotic Barriers: Prevents a hybrid zygote from developing into a viable fertile adult |
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Term
| What are the 5 Types of Pre Zygotic Barriers? |
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Definition
1. Habitat Isolation: Two species live in different habitats (in the same area) and rarely meet
2. Behavioral Isolation: Species do not recognize signals or mating cues of other species
3. Temporal Isolation: Species breed a different times
4. MEchanical Isolation: Species are anatomically incompatible
5. Gamete Isolation: Species gametes are incompatible |
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Term
| What are the 3 Types of Post Zygotic Barriers |
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Definition
1. Reduced Hybrid Viability: Hybrids fail to develop or reach sexual maturity
2. Reduced Hybrid Fertility: Hybrids may be mostly or completely sterile
3. Hybrid Breakdown: offspring of hybrids have reduced viability or fertility |
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Term
| What are 2 modes of speciation? |
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Definition
1. Allopatric: Reproductive isolation occurs through geographic separations. Gene Flow is reduced or eliminated
2. Sympatric: Reproductive isolation occurs with out geographic isolation. new species arise from with in parent species. |
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Term
| How is Allopatric Isolation a "mechanistic model"? |
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Definition
| It is a mechanistic model in that it includes a reason why gene flow is disrupted (physical separation) |
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Term
| What does sympatric speciation describe? |
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Definition
| It describes only a spatial pattern, not a mechanism for gene flow disruption |
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Term
| What is Adaptive Radiation? |
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Definition
| A type of allopatric speciation in which evolution of many diversely adapted species from a common ancestor. |
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Term
| When is something officially a species? |
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Definition
| 1. When reproductive isolation has occurred (Pre or post zygotic mechanisms are in place) |
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Term
| How does Sympatric Speciation occur? |
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Definition
1. A mutation arises: imparting a preference among some females for certain males and over generations the populations continue to diverge, resulting in 2 species
2. Polyploidy: Accidents that occur in some plants during cell division that results in extra sets of chromosomes. If 2 games join, the offspring may b viable and fertile but reproductively isolated form the parent species |
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Term
| What is Autopolyploidy and Allopolyploidy? |
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Definition
Autopolyploidy: is contribution to they hybrid from one species
Allopolyploidy: is contribution to the hybrid from two species |
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Term
| How Fast can evolution happen? |
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Definition
A gradualistic model: Small changes over time add up to big changes
A Punctuated Equilibrium View: IS that speciation is rapid (1,00's of yrs) and interrupted by long periods of statis (millions of yrs) |
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Term
| What is Allometry, Heterochrony, and Paedomorphesis? |
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Definition
Allometry: Change in shape during growth due to differential growth rates
Heterochrony: Evolutionary change in the rate or timing of development
Paedomorphesis: Retention of juvenile features in the adult (reproductively mature) stage. |
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Term
| The Modern Scientific Study of animal behavior extends beyond simply observing behavior to: |
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Definition
1. How behavior is controlled
2. How behavior develops and evolves
3. How behavior contributes to an individual's survival
4. How behavior contributes to an individuals reproductive success |
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Term
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Definition
| Is everything an animal does and how it does them. Behavior comes from both genes and the environment |
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Term
| What are proximate questions and ultimate questions? |
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Definition
Proximate Questions: are how questions. Ex. How does a bee find its way back to the hive. From Proximate Questions we are able to generate hypothesis.
Ultimate Questions: are why questions. Evolutionary significance of the behavior. Ex. Why did natural selection favor this behavior and not another one |
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Term
| What are Tinberg's Four Questions that should be asked by any animal behaviorist? |
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Definition
1. What is the mechanistic basis of the behavior?
2. How does development of the animal influence behavior?
3. What is the evolutionary history of the behavior?
4. How does the behavior contribute to the survival and reproduction? |
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Term
| What are Innate Behaviors? |
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Definition
| Behaviors under genetic control |
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Term
| What are 3 Environmental Influences on behaviors? |
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Definition
1. Learning
2. Spatial Learning
3. Associative Learning (classical and operant conditioning) |
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Term
| What is a Fixed Action Pattern? |
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Definition
| Instinctive behavioral sequence, triggered by a sign stimulus, that is indivisible and runs to completion. (innate behavior) |
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Term
| What are Directed Movements-Kinesis? |
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Definition
| A change in rate of activity in response to an environmental condition. (innate behavior) |
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Term
| What are Directed Movements-Taxis? |
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Definition
| Oriented movement toward (positive taxis) or away (negative taxis) from some stimulus. (innate behavior) |
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Term
| What is Directed Movements-Migration? |
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Definition
| Also under genetic control, although way more complex than kinesis or taxis. |
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Term
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Definition
| Contains both innate and learning components and is genrally irreversible |
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Term
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Definition
1. Learning: The modification of behavior based on specific Experiences.
-Habituation: one of the simplest forms of learning. A loss or responsiveness to stimuli that convey little important information |
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Term
| What is Spatial Learning? |
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Definition
2. Spatial Learning: The modification of behavior based on experience with the spatial structure of the environment. It includes location of nest sites, hazards, food, prospective mates, hibernation sites, etc.
-Includes land marks
-Cognitive Maps: (an internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in a animals surroundings) |
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Term
| What is associative learning? |
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Definition
3. Associative Learning: Associating one feature of the environment with another.
-Classical Conditioning: An arbitrary stimulus is associated with a reward or punishment. Ex. Pavlovs dogs
-Operant Conditioning: An animal learns to associate one of its own behaviors with a reward or punishment, then tends to repeat or avoid that behavior. (trail and errors) |
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