• Involves just one parent
• rapid reproduction is possible, but it minimizes genetic diversity
• Parthogenesis: eggs develop without fertilization "egg self fertilization". IE plants and the whip tail lizard
• Binary Fission: Resembles mitosis, simply divide and separate
• Fragmentation or buddgin: one splits off an builds on another
• Vegetative propogation: runners, connected, all one individual of advantageous roots

• Evolved in the sea
• Oviparous: egg layer
• Viviparous: gives live birth

• Most fish and amphibians
• oviparous only
• Fertilization is taking place external to the organism's body

• Some Fish
• Reptiles, birds and mammals
• Oviparous and Viviparous

• Overabundance of eggs
• Offspring is precocious
• Male sperm spray on laid eggs
• Little parental involvement
• few offspring survive to maturity

• Similar to most fish
• Depenent of water
• Independent larval stage
• Larvae metamorphose into adults

• Internal Fertilization (copulatory organs)
• Oviparous and viviparous species
• water tight egg shell
• Precocious
• More parental involvement
• Lots of variability in reptile reproduction

• cloacal kiss: insertion of sperm (similar to egg laying)
• fewer eggs
• More parental involvement
• more durable shell
• More atricial
• Offspring are more likely to survive

• Prototherian (egg layers)
• Metahterian (marsupials)
• Eutherian (placental)

• Corpus Lueum produces progesterone, which enhances the endometrial lining
• Blastocyst implants in endometrium and maintians elevated progesterone, a hormone that thickens the uterus
• Embryo produces hCG
• Pregnancy is initiated, once blastocyst is implanted in the uterus

• Fertilization: zygote formation
• Cleavage: implntation, stem cell formation
• Gastrulation: 3 layers, endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm. This is the hollow ball
• Neurulation: notochord, which becomes the vertebrate
• Neural Crest
• Organogenesis

• Nutrients and gases transfer across the placental capillaries
• Placenta, Amnion, and Chorion all form the after birth

• uterine contraction and cervical dilation
• Neonate expelled through the vag
• afterbirth delivered

• Colostrum: first milk provies critical antibodies and nutrients
• Components of milk depend on species

• Darwin published theoretical concept of evolution in 1859: On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
• Wallace developed it at the same time.
• Both were naturalists, and observed the structural, dietar, reproductive and social characteristics of organisms.
• Both were inlfuenced by hummbodlt, another naturalist, and Malthus, who wrote an essay on exponential growth
• Darwin concluded: preservation of favorable variations; overtime characteristics of entire populations change; natural selection

• Island species are more similar in composition to nearest mainland as opposed to nearest island
• Island populations were founded by small numbers of mainland species, which then evolved distinctly: Adaptive radiation
• Species are more similar to mainlaind species because they share a common ancestor

• Biogeographic evidence
• Fossil record: mineralized bonds that provide an incomplete record of past fauna; changes in phenotype are recorded; transitional species demonstrate common ancestry; radio isotopic dating
• Anatomical: divergent homologous strucutres (same struct, diff. function) and convergent analogous structures (diff. struct., same function)
• Molecular evidence: mitochondrial DNA; amino acid substitution in a given protein refelct the distance of time since divergence

• Genetic variation among individuals
• Life is a struggle
• Some phenotypes are favored
• Successful phenotypes reproduce
• Populations exhibit the sucessful traits
• Descent with modification

• Inheritance of acquired traits, or one that is learned
• Traits that are acquired cannot be inherited or passed on

• Changes in frequency of genotype/phenotypes within a population as a result of natural selection
• variation, the driving force, is introduced via:

Mutation

Gene flow

Genetic Drift

Non-Random mating

• Community (biotic) and physical habitat (abiotic) = ecosystem
• Includes interactive species
• scale varies

• Autotrophs: Produces
• heterotophs: Primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers
• Detrivores
• Decomposers

• Net Primary Productivity: the total amount of energy fixed by plants contributing to biomass
• Laws of Thermodynamics