1. living things have a different molecular composition than nonliving things do

2. Living things require energy and raw materials

3.living things are composed of cells

4.living things respond to thier external environment

5. living things grow and reproduce

6.populations of living things evolve

Unicellular: only have one cell

Multicellular: Are composed of many cellls or many different types of cells.

the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment.

-living things have developed remarkable ways of regulating their internal environment despite sometimes dramatic changes in the external environment

Five Kingdom system

1.Animalia

2.Fungi

3.Monera

4.Plantae

5.Protista

(yeasts,molds,mushrooms)

obtain their energy from decaying material

domains of Monera

1.bipedalism

2.Opposable Thumbs

3.Large brain

4.Capacity for complex language

fact: verifiable piece of information

conclusion: judgement based on the facts

the characteristic number of protons in the nucleus

electrically charged atom or molecule.

-a second way that atoms can fill their outer shell of electrons is to give up electrons completely or take electrons from other atoms. such a loss or gain of electrons gives the atom a net charge, because now there are fewer (or more) electrons than protons in the neucleus

solvent: is a liquid in which other substances dissolve

solute: any dissolved substance

when covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxygen in water are broken.

hydrogen ion (H+)

hydroxide ion (OH-)

size of organic molecules derived from carbon (from the Greek makros, long)

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids

the nature of the chemical bonds in cellulose is such that animals (including humans) cannot break cellulose down to glucose units. this is why we cannot digest wood. but there's plenty of energy locked in the chemical bonds of cellulose (heat generated by wood fire).

plants use it for stuctural support rather than for energy storage.

-in saturated fats, the tails are fairly straight, allowing them to pack closely together

-full complement of two hydrogen atoms for each carbon in their tails

-saturated fats are generally solid at room temperature

-examples of saturated fat: butter and bacon grease

-also called oils.

-have fewer than two hydrogen atoms on one or more of the carbon atoms in the tails

-double bonds form between adjacent carbons, putting kinks in the tails

-saturated fats (oils) are liquid at room temperature

-primary structural component of cell membranes

-phospholipids have a molecule of glycerol as the backbone, but only have two fatty acid tails

-insoluble in water

-do not look at all like the other lipids

-consists of a backbone of thre 6-membered carbon rings and one 5-membered carbon ring

-is a steroid

-a normal and essential structural component of animal cell membranes

-our bodies manufacture cholestrol even though we generally get more than we need from our diet

-the genetic material of living things

-directs everything the cell does

-also relates to neucleic acids

-contains instructions for producing

-responsible for carrying out the instructions of DNA, and in some cases, of regulating the activity of DNA itself.

-RNA contains the instructions for producing proteins

-proteins direct most of life's processes

DNA and RNA are composed of this.

1.a five-carbon sugar

2.a single-or double ringed structure containing nitrogen called a base

3. one ore more phosphate groups

-like the five carbon sugar ribose but missing one oxygen atom

-the sugar unit in DNA is deoxyribose 

uracil, adenine, cytosine and guanine

-the sugar unit for RNA is ribose

a universal energy souce for cells because the bonds between the phosphate grops contain a great deal of potential energy.

-ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

-an inorganic molecule (p1)

-energy that is now available to do work

this process is reversible. (meaning that ATP is replensished by using another source of energy to reattact p1 to ADP)

1. All living things are composed of cells and cell products

2.a single cell is the smallest unit that exhibits all the characteristics of life

3.All cells come only from preexisting cells

-surrounds the outer membrane of all cells

-encloses the material inside the cell, (which is mostly water)

-also contains ions, enzymes, and other structures  the cell requires to maintain life

1. A plasma membrane
2. A neucleus
3. Cytoplasm

-phospholipids

-cholesterol

-proteins

-passive transport

-active transport

-endocytosis or exocytosis

1. diffusion through the lipid bilayer
2. diffusion through channels
3. facilitated transport

• allows a cell to accumulate essential molecules even when their concentration outside the cell is relativlely low, and to get rid of molecules that it does not need.
• it can move substances through the plasma membrane against their concentration gradient

• spans the plasma membrane
• can recieeve and transmit information across the membrane

• contain powerful digestive enzymes.
• fuse with endocytotic vesicles within the cell, digesting bacteria and other large objects
• performs housekeeping tasks (dissolving and removing damaged mitochondria and other debris)

1. hairlike on the cell
2. move materials along the surface of a cell with a brushing broom
3. common on the cells that line the airways and in certain ducts within the body

1. are found only in sperm cells
2. the whiplike movement of the flagellum moves the entire sperm cell from one place to another

1. short, rodlike microtubular structures located near the nucleus

1. anabolism
2. catabolism

molecules that are assembled into larger molecules that conatin more energy, a process that requires energy.

Ex: assembly of a protein from many amino acids

1. Glycolysis: the six carbon glucose molecule is split into two 3 carbon pyruvate molecules. Energy is required to get the process started
2. The preparatory step: pryuvate enters a mitochondrion
3. The citric acid cyle: An acetyl CoA molecule is broken down completley by mitochondrial enzymes, and its energy is released
4. The electtron transport system: most of the energy derived from the orginial glucose molecule is used to phophory-late ADP, producing high-energy ATP

• NADH and FADH move to the inner membrane of the mitochondria and release their cargo here
• here, the energy-rich electrons are transferred sequentially from one protein carrier to another. The sequential transfer is important because it allows the energy in the electrons to be released in manageable quantities.

• One of the special channels in which H+ can diffuse through
• atp syn. uses the energy deprived from the diffusion of H+ to catalyze the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi

• pyruvate is converted to this.
• the buildup of lactic acid is what causes the burning sensation and caramps associated with muscle fatigue when not enough oxygen is available to muscle tissue

consists of sheets of cells that line/cover various surfaces and body cavities

• Ex: digestive tract,skin, lining of mouth, lungs,bladder,blood vessels and the tubles of your kidneys.

secrete their products into a hollow organ or duct.

Examples: glands in your mouth that secrete saliva, sweat glands in your skin, and glands in your stomach that produce disgestive acid

1. Squamous epithelium
2. Cuboidal epithelium
3. Columnar epithelium

• consists of one or more layers of flattened cells
• forms the outer surface of the skin and lines the inner surfaces of the blood vessels, lungs, mouth and throat, and vagina

represent connecting channels made of proteins that permit the movement of ions or water between two adjacent cells.

Example: found in the liver, heart, and some muscle tissues.

• thin fibers of collagen that interconnect with each other.
• serves as an internal structural framework for some of  the "soft" organs such as the liver, spleen and lymph nodes

1. loose connective tissue
2. Dense connective tissue
3. Elastic connective tissue

• specialized connective tissues that contains only a few living cless
• has hard mineral deposits of calcium and phosphate
• contains numerous blood vessels, and that why it can heal within four to six weeks after being injured

• consists of cells suspended in a fluid matrix called plasma.
• Connective tissue because all blood cells derive from earlier cells (called stem cells)
• Red blood cells transport oxygen and nutrients to body cells and carry away the waste products of the cells' metabolism.

• higly specialized for fat storage
• has few connective tissue fibers and almost no ground substance
• Most of its volume is occupied by adipocytes
• primarily under the skin, serves layer of insulation
• protective layer around internal organs such as the kidneys
• number of adipocytes is determined by genetic inheritance
  

consists of cells that are specialized to shorten, or contract, resulting in movement of some kind.

1. cell body: where the nucleus is found
2. dendrites: numerous cytoplasmic extensions that extend from the cell body and recieve signals from other neurons
3. Axon: transmits electrical impulses over long distances

Organs

• Protects us from injury, infection and dehydration
• Particpates in temperature control
• Recieves sensory input from the external environment

1. protects, supports and anchors body parts
2. provides the structural framework for movement
3. Produces blood cells
4. Stores minerals

1. Produces movement or resists movement
2. Generates heat

1. Transports materials to and from all cells
2. Participates in the maintenance of body temperature
3. Participates in the mehanisms of defense against disease and injury

1. Returns excess tissue fluid to the circulatory system
2. Participates in both general and specific (immune) defense responses

1. Exchanges gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between air and blood
2. Particpates in the production of sound (vocalization)

1. Detects both external and internal stimuli
2. Controls and coordinates rapid responses to these stimuli
3. Integrates the activities of other organ systems

1. Produces hormones that regulate many body functions
2. Participates with the nervous system in integrative functions

1. Provides the body with water and nutrients
2. (the liver) synthesizes certain proteins and lipids for the body
3. (the liver) inactivates many chemicals, including hormones, drugs, and poisons

1. Maintains the volume and composition of body fluids
2. Excretes some waste products

1. Female: Produces eggs
2. Female: Nurtures the fertilized egg; developing embryo, and fetus until birth
3. Male: Produces sperm
4. Male: Participates in the delivery of sperm to the egg

1. Serous Membrane
2. Mucous Membrane
3. Synovial Membrane
4. CUtaneous Membrane

1. midsgittal
2. frontal
3. transverse

Anterior, Posterior, Proximal, Distal, Superior and Inferior

1. anterior: at or near the front
2. Posterior: at or near the back
3. Proximal: near to/closer proximity  (any point of distance)
4. distal: farther away
5. Superior: situated above
6. Inferior situated below

1. epidermis: outer layer of the skin's epithelial tissue
2. dermis: inner layer of connective tissue

1. keratinocytes
2. melanocytes

1. hair: has a shaft above the skin's surface and a root below the surface. composed of several layers.
2. smooth muscle: attacched to the base of the hair follicle, it contracts when you are frightened or cold, causing hair to be more erect
3. sebaceous glands: Oil gland. secret oily fluid that moistens and softens hair and skin
4. sweat glands: produce sweat
5. blood vessels: supply dermiss and epidermis with nutrients and removes wastes
6. sensory nerve endings:  provide info about the outside environment. detects heat, cold, light touch, deep pressure and vibration.

• Saliva moistens food
• Bicarbonate maintains pH
• Amylase digests starch
• Lysozyme inhibits bacteria

• Produces bile
• Performs various functions associated with processing and storing nutrients

• stores and concentrates bile

1. secretes digestive enzymes into small intestine
2. secretes bicarbonate into small intestine to neutralize stomach acid

1. teeth chew food
2. tongue positions and tastes food

1. passageway for food and air
2. Participates in swallowing

one point to Esophagus

1. Moves food from pharnx to stomach

1. stores and mixes food
2. Begins chemical digestion of protein by enzymes and acid
3. Regulates delivery to the small intestine

1. digests proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
2. absorbs most of the water and nutrients
3. secretes digestive hormones and enzymes

1. Absorbs the last of the water and nutrients
2. Stores waste material

1. stores feces

1. passageway for feces

1. Expels undigested material

1. mucosa
2. submucosa
3. muscalaris
4. serosa

1. Mechanical processing and movement: chewing breaks food into smaller pieces
2. Secretion: Fluid, digestive enzymes, acid, alkali, bile and mucus are all secreted into the GI tract at various places
3. Digeston: The contents of the lumen are broken down both mechanically and chemically into smaller and smaller particles
4. Absorption: Nutrient molecules pass across the mucosal layer of the GI tract
5. Elimination: Undigested  material is elimanated from the body via the anus

1. Digestion
2. Absorbtion

1. duodenum: most of digestion takes place
2. Jejunum: digestion
3. Ileum:digeston

1. Digestive enzymes: include proteases such as trypsin, chymostrypsin and carboxypeptidase; pancreatic amylase, which contiues of the digestion of carbohydrates only partially accomplished by salivary amylase; and lipase, a lipid-producing enzyme
2. Sodium bicarbonate: unlike pepsin, which is effective in acid conditions, pancreatic enzymes work best at a more neutral pH. NaHCO3 fuctions to neutralize stomach acid

1. internal anal: keeps the anus closed. is a ring of smooth muscle
2. external anal sphincter: we prevent defecation by contracting this.

1. Carbohydrate: main sources of enrgy, and many nutritionists reccomondd that 45-65% of our calorie intake come from carbs
2. Minerals: atoms of certain chemical eleements that are also essential for body processes. are the ions in blood plasma and cell cytoplasm
3. Calories: amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 deg. celcius. one calore doesn't have that much energy, thus we need more than 1,000 calories.