axial skeleton

appendicular skeleton

cranial cavity

thoracic cavity

pelvic cavity

diffusion

 concentration gradient

difference in concentrations

must exist for diffusion to occur

when can diffusion occur?

1.)if the cell membrane is permeable to that substance

2.)if a concentration gradient exists such that the substance is at a higher concentration on one side of the membrane or the other

facilitated diffusion

-movement that follows the concentration gradient but uses membrane proteins as "carriers"

-# of carrier molecules in the cell membrane limits the rate of facilitated diffusion

-form of passive transport

osmosis

-the diffusion of water molecules from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration across a selectively permeable membrane, such as a cell membrane

-passive transport

hypertonic

hypotonic solution

filtration

-a process by which molecules are forced through membranes

-ex. hydrostatic pressure created by weight of water due to gravity forcing water molecules through filter

-passive transport

active transport

-movement against a  concentration gradient

-requires cellular energy (ATP)

endocytosis

major cells in connective tissue

-fibroblasts- most common fixed cell, star-shaped, secretes proteins into matrix

-macrophage- originate as white blood cells, usualyl attached to fibers but can detach, specialized for phagocytosis

-mast cells- large and widely distributed, release herapin and histamine

pinocytosis

-a form of endocytosis

-cells take in tiny droplets of liquid from their surroundings

phagocytosis

-when a cell "eats" a solid, rather than a liquid

-form of endocytosis

phagocytes

receptor-mediated endocytosis

-form of endocytosis

-when very specific kinds of particles are moved into a cell (pino- and phagocytosis engulf nonspecifically)

exocytosis

-substances made within the cell are packaged into a vesicle, which then fuses with the cell membrane, releasing its contents outside the cell

-cells secrete some proteins by this process

tissues

-layers or groups of similar cells with a common function

-can be distinguished by variations in size, shape, organization, and function

histology

4 major kinds of tissues

-epithelial

-connective

-muscular

-nervous

characteristics of epithelial tissue

-lack blood vessels

-readily divide

-always has a free (apical) surface

-underside always anchored to a basement membrane

-cells are tightly packed

function of epithelial tissue

-protection

-secretion

-absorption

-excretion

Location of epithelial tissue

-forms inner lining of body cavities and lines hollow organs, composes glands

Characteristics of Connective tissue

-mostly have good blood supply

-cells are further apart than epithelial cells

-have extracellular matrix in between

-most abundant type of tissue by weight

 Function of connective tissue

-bind

-support

-protect

-fill spaces

-store fat

-produce blood cells

Location of connective tissue

Characteristics of muscle tissue

Function of muscle tissue

location of muscle tissue

-attached to bones

-in walls of hollow internal organs

-heart

characteristics of nervous tissue

location of nervous tissue

-brain

-spinal cord

-nerves

function of nervous tissue

-transmit impulses for coordination

-regulation

-integration

-sensory reception

kinds of epithelial tissue

-simple squamous epithelium

-simple cuboidal epithelium

-simply columnar epithelium

-pseudostratified columnar epithelium

-stratified squamous epithelium

-stratified cuboidal epithelium

-stratified columnar epithelium

-transitional epithelium

-glandular epithelium

simple squamous

-epithelial 

-single layer

-thin, flattened cells

-broad, thin nuclei

-substances pass through easily

-ex. walls of capillaries

simple cuboidal

-epithelial

-single layer

-cube-shaped cells

-centrally located, spherical nuclei

-ex. covers ovaries

simple columnar

-epithelial

-single layer

-elongated cells

-nuclei at same level near basement membrane

-may have cilia

-ex. portions of digestive tract

basement membrane

-thin, non-living membrane

-anchors epithelial to connective tissues

goblet cells

-scattered in simple colmnar epithelium

-secrete mucus

psuedostratified columnar

-epithelial

-appears layered, or stratified

-BUT THEY AREN't!

-nuclei are at two or more levels in a row of cells

-give appearance of layers

-commonly have cilia

-ex. passages of respiratory system

stratified squamous

-epithelial

-many layers of cells, makes tissue pretty thick

-cells nearest surface are flattened

-deepest cells are cuboidal or columnar

-ex. oral cavity, esophagus, vagina, anal canal

Stratified Cuboidal

-epithelial

-2 or 3 layers of cuboidal cells

-more protection than single layer

-ex. lines larger ducts of mammary glands

stratified columnar

-epithelial

-several layers

-superficial cells: elongated

-basal layers: cube-shaped

-ex. in part of male urethra

transitional epithelium

-epithelial

-specialized to change in response to increased tension

-when contracted- cells cuboidal

-when distended- tissue stretches, apparently less layers

-ex. lining of urinary bladder

glandular epithelium

-composed of cells specialized to produce and secrete substances into ducts or into body fluids

-exocrine: secrete into ducts that go to open surfaces

-endocrine: secrete into tissue fluid or blood

loose connective tissue

-areolar

-binds skin to underlying organs

-cells, mainly fibroblasts, are far apart

-separated by ground substance

connective tissue fibers

-collagenous: thick threads of protein collagen, grouped in long parallel bundles, strong, can resist pulling forces, not elastic, ex. ligaments and tendons

-elastic fibers: composed of elastin, weaker than collagenous but very elastic, ex. vocal cords

-reticular fibers: very thin collagenous fibers

adipose tissue

-fat

-a form of connective tissue

-cells resemble fibroblasts

-as they accumulate fat droplets, they enlarge

-ex. cushion joints, lies beneath skin, behind eyeballs, on surface of heart

reticular connective tissue

- composed of thin, collagenous fibers

-provides framework for certain internal organs

-ex. liver

dense connective tissue

-closely packed, thick, collagenous fibers

-some elastic fibers

-only a few cells, mostly fibroblasts

-often binds body parts together

-hard to repair

-poor blood supply

-thick fibers, interwoven, no organization

-ex. tendons

elastic connective tissue

-elastic fibers in parallel strands

-between strands are collagenous fibers and fibroblasts

-ex. in walls of larger arteries

cartilage

-rigid connective tissue

-cartilage cells=chondrocytes

-function: supports, frameworks, attachments, protects underlying tissues, forms structural models

-cartilage extracellular matrix

-lacks direct blood supply

-chondrocytes don't divide frequently

-3 types of cartialge: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

-hyaline cartilage is most common type

Bone

-most rigid connective tissue

-mineral salts make it hard

-internally supports body structures

-bone matrix deposited by bone cells

-bone cells=osteoblasts

-located in lacunae

-osteoblasts in lacunae=osteocytes

osteoblast

bone cell

osteocyte

-bone cell inside a lacunae

-lacunae=tiny, bony chambers

-transport nutrients and waste

osteon

-unit that bones are made up of

-also called Haversian system

-bones=active tissue

-forms around central canal

blood

-a connective tissue

-red blood cells, white blood cells

-composed of cells suspended in a fluid extracellular matrix called plasma

Skeletal muscle tissue

-forms muscles that usually attach to bones

-voluntary muscle tissue

-skeletal muscle cells are long and narrow

-cells are striated

-nerve cells stimulate muscle contraction

-multinucleate

smooth muscle tissue

-lacks striations

-spindle shaped

-single, centrally located nucleus

-actions of smooth muscle are involuntary

cardiac muscle tissue

-only in the heart

-cells: striated, branched, one nuclei

-involuntary

nervous tissue

-found in brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves

-nerve cells=neurons

-highly specialized: can sense changes in surroundings and respond by transmitting nerve impulses along cellular processes to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Bone classification

-long bones, ex. femur

-short bones, ex. ankles + wrists

-flat bones, ex. ribs

-irregular bones, ex. vertebrae

-sesamoid/round bones, ex. patella

Parts of long bone

-epiphysis

-articular cartilage

-diaphysis

-periosteum

-trabeculae

-medullary cavity

-endosteum

-marrow

epiphysis

-expanded portion at end of each long bone

-distal or proximal

-articulates with another bone

articular cartilage

-layer of hyaline cartilage

-covers articulating portion of epiphysis

diaphysis

-shaft of long bone

-between the epiphyses

-wall made of compact bone

compact bone

-tightly packed bone tissue

-continuous extracellular matrix w/ no gaps

-heavy in comparison to spongy

spongy bone

-cancellous bone

-many branching bony plates called trabeculae

-irregular connecting spaces between plates reduce bone's weight

-able to withstand compressive forces

-also composed of extracellular matrix + osteocytes

-doesn't aggregate around central canals

-canaliculi

medullary cavity

-hollow chamber in the diaphysis

-continuous w/ spaces of spongy bone

-covered by endosteum

-filled with yellow marrow

periosteum

-tough, vascular covering of fibrous tissue

-helps form and repair bone tissue

-protects bone

-made of periosteal fibers

endosteum

-thin membrane

-contains bone-forming cells

-lines medullary cavity

yellow marrow

-specialized type of connective tissue

-stores fat

-found in medullary cavity

central canal

-what ostecytes form around to make osteon

-orientation resists compressive forces

-contains nerve and blood vessels

-extend longitudinally through perforating canals

2 kinds of bone formation

-intramembranous

-endochondral

intramembranous bones

-layers of unspecialized conn. tissues appear at future bone sites

- blood vessels perforate tissue

-cells enlarge and differentiate into osteoblasts

-osteoblasts deposit bony matrix around themselves

-surrounded osteoblasts become osteocytes in lacunae

-osteoblasts on inside of periosteum create compact bone

endochondral bone formation

-developed from masses of hyaline cartilage shaped like future bone structures

-as cartilage decomposes, periosteum forms and develops structure

-invading cells differentiate into osteoblasts

-as ossification continues, bone under periosteum becomes compact bone

primary ossification center

-center of diaphysis in a long bone

-where tissue beings to replace hyaline cartilage

secondary ossification centers

-in the epiphyses

-ossification occurs here after center of diaphysis

-epiphyseal plate separates primary and secondary ossification centers

epiphyseal plate

-band of cartilage between primary and secondary ossification centers

-(between epiphyses and diaphysis)

-growth occurs along epiphyseal plates as this band of cartilage turns into bone

osteoclasts

-large, multinucleated cells

-break down calcified matrix

-secrete an acid the dissolves inorganic component of the calcified matrix

-also use phagocytosis

Factors influencing bone development, growth, and repair

-NUTRITION: vitamin A (osteoblast and -clast activity), vitamin C (collagen synthesis), vitamin D (for proper absorption of calcium)

-EXPOSURE TO SUNLIGHT: sun provides vitamin D, critical for calcium absorption

-PHYSICAL EXERCISE: tells your bones to get stronger, weight-bearing exercise

-HORMONE SECRETIONS: growth hormone from pituitary gland (stimulates division of cartilage cells at epiphyseal plates), thyroxine from thyroid at right time in certain amounts- stimulates ossification (can cause premature ossification), sex hormones promote bone tissue growth (estrogens-female sex hormones-are stronger-->girls reach max. earlier)

Hormones & Bone Growth

HORMONE SECRETIONS:

-growth hormone from pituitary gland (stimulates division of cartilage cells at epiphyseal plates),  

-thyroxine from thyroid at right time in certain amounts- stimulates ossification (can cause premature ossification),

-sex hormones promote bone tissue growth (estrogens-female sex hormones-are stronger-->girls reach max. earlier)- androgens or estrogens

skull

cranium

pectoral girdle

upper limbs

-humerus

-radius

-ulna

-carpal

-metacarpals

-digital phalanges

humerus

radius

-lower arm bone

-on thumb side

ulna

-lower arm bone

-on pinky side

carpals

-wrist bones

-8

metacarpals

-hand bones

-there are 5

phalanges

-finger bones

-14

pelvic girdle

coxae

pelvis

lower limbs

-femur

-tibia

-fibula

-patella

-tarsals

-metatarsals

-phalanges

femur

tibia

-slender lower leg bone

-behind tibia

patella

-ankle bones

-7

metatarsals

 phalanges (not digital)

sternum

-breastbone

-manubrium=top part

-xiphoid process= lower part

ribs

-first 7 pairs: "true"

-next 5: "false"

-all connect with thoracic vertebrae

 ilium

-prominence of hip

-flares outward

-margin of prominence=iliac crest

-largest and most superior portion of coxa

 ischium

-lowest portion of the coxa

-points posteriorly and downwards

pubis

-anterior portion of coxa

-2 pubic bones come together at midline to form joint called symphysis pubis

joints

-articulaions

-functionl junctions between bones

classification of joints

-fibrous joints: dense connective tissue holds them together, collagenous fibers

-cartilaginous joints: joints made of hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage

-synovial joints: comprise most joints of body, allow free movement, have articular cartilage, joint capsule, and a synovial membrane w/ synovial fluid

kinds of fibrous joint

-syndesmosis

-suture

-gomphosis

kinds of cartilaginous joint

-synchondrosis

-symphysis

kinds of synovial joints

-ball-and-socket joint

-Condyloid joint

-gliding joint

-hinge joint

-pivot joint

-saddle joint

syndesmosis

-interosseous membrane

-sheet of dense connective tissue

-is amphiarthrotic (slight movement)

-ex. between tibia and fibula

Suture

-only between flat bones of skull

-sutural ligament

-unite by thin layer of dense connective tissue

-synarthrotic (immovable)

gomphosis

-cone and socket

-cone-shaped bony process attached with thick collagenous fibers

-synarthrotic

-ex. tooth

synchondrosis

-bands of hyaline cartilage

-many are temporary

-for the most part, synarthrotic

-ex. epiphyseal plate

symphysis

-articular surfaces of bones covered w/ thin layer of hyaline cartilage

-hyaline attached to pad of fibrocartilage

-amphiarthrotic

-limited movement allowed

-ex. symphysis pubis in pelvis

general structure of synovial joint

-articular ends of bones-->articular cartilage:

-resists wear, minimizes friction

-2 layer, tubular joint capsule:

-outside-dense connective tissue

-completely encloses other parts of joint

-inner=synovial membrane, loose conn.

-surrounds synovial cavity

-secretes viscous, synovial fluid:

-lubricates surfaces within joint

-ligaments reinforce joint capsule and help bind articular ends of bones, somewhat limit movement

ball-and-socket joint

-synovial

-gives most range

-movement in all planes+rotation

-ex. shoulder

condyloid joint

-synovial

-all movement except rotation possible

-ex. between metacarpals and phalanges

gliding joints

-synovial

-back and forth motion and twisting

-ex. joints in carpals and tarsals

hinge joint

-synovial

-like a hinge (pretty straightforward)

-movement in one plane

-ex. elbow

pivot joint

-rotation around central axis

-ex. pivot joint in neck for rotation of head

saddle joint

-between convex and concave regions

-variety of movement, mainly in 2 planes

-ex. between carpal(trapezium) and metacarpal of thumb

threshold stimulus

- a certain strength of stimulation

-when reached, action potential is generated, resulting in an impulse that spreads throughout the muscle fiber

 twitch

- the contractile response of a single muscle fiber to a muscle impulse

-period of contraction followed by period of relaxation

latent period

summation

tetanic contraction (tetanus)

motor unit summation (recruitment)

isometric

isotonic

pectoralis major

-a large muscle located in the pectoral region (chest)

-connected to clavicle and sternum

latissimus dorsi

-wide, triangular muscle that curves upward from the lower back, around the side, and to the armpit

serratus anterior

-broad, curved muscle located on side of chest

-looks serrated on side

levator scapulae

trapezius

-large, triangular muscle

-extends horizontally from base of skull to shoulder

deltoid

gluteus maximus

-largest muscle in body

-covers large portion of each buttock

sartorius

-elongated, straplike muscle

-passes obliquely across front of thigh

-descends over medial side of the knee

biceps femoris

-passes along back of thigh on lateral side

-NOT ON ARM