Describe seven properties common to all life. Know the descriptions of each.

1. Order - Life is characterized by highly ordered structures.
2. Reproduction - Organisms reproduce their own kind.
3. Growth & development - inherited information encoded in DNA control the pattern of growth and development of all organisms.
4. Response to the environment - all organisms respond to environmental stimuli. ex: venus fly trap
5. Energy processing - organisms take in energy and use it to power all their activities.
6. Regulation - organisms have regulatory mechanisms that maintain a beneficial internal environment. ex:lizard
7. Evolutionary adaptation - adaptations evolve over countless generations as heritable traits are suited to their environment. ex: red panda

What are the components of life from smallest to largest (levels of biological organization)? Describe each one. 

1. Molecule - made of atoms, the smallest unit of chemical elements.
2. Organelle - membrane-enclosed structure in a cell.
3. Cell - the basic unit of life. 2 kinds: plant and animal
4. Tissue - a group of cells that work together to perform a specific task.
5. Organs - a system of tissues that work together to perform specific functions.
6. Organ system - group of organs that work together to perform specific body functions.
7. Organism - an individual living thing.
8. Population -  individuals of a particular species living in a community.
9. Community -   all the organisms in an ecosystem.
10. Ecosystem - all the organisms in a particular area.
11. Biosphere - all life on earth.

Define the concept of emergent properties and describe an example.

In each step moving up the hierarchy of an organization, more new properties arise. For example, an organ system is capable of more than an organ.

Explain why cells are a special level in the biological organization. Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Cells are the fundamental unit of life.  They can regulate their internal environment, take in/use energy, respond to the environment, complex organization to arise new cells.

• Prokaryotic cells are single-cell organisms which do not contain organelles or internal membrane structures.  They have a single chromosome and no nucleus but have a nucleoid.
• Eukaryotic cells are multi-cellular organisms and contain a nucleus and other organelles encapsulated within the membrane. in plants, animals, fungi

Compare the dynamics of nutrients and energy in an ecosystem. Which one flows through the ecosystem? Which one cycles? Why is the sun important?

Recycling of chemical nutrients from the ecosystem through producers, consumers, and decomposers back into the ecosystem.

Energy flows through an ecosystem.

Nutrients cycles and are reused.

The sun is the inflow of energy in both, in the form of food.

What is DNA? What is so important about this molecule? 

DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides.  The importance of this molecule is that it can replicate or make copies of itself.

Compare the three domains of life.

1. Bacteria - Unicellular-Consists of only one cell. Prokaryotic-Cells which have no nucleus and lack internal complexity.
2. Archaea - Unicellular-Consists of only one cell. Prokaryotic-Cells which contain no nucleus and lack internal complexity. (Hint: this domain is closest to bacteria)
3. Eukarya - Unicellular and Multicellular-May consist of one or more cells. Eukaryotic-Cells which contain a nucleus and internal complexity.

Describe the process of natural selection. Do individuals evolve?

Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in the heritable traits characteristic of a population over generations.  Individuals do evolve.

Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data.

Quantitative data generates numerical data or information that can be converted into numbers.

Qualitative data generates non-numerical data.

Compare the definitions and use of inductive and deductive reasoning in scientific investigations.

Inductive - begins by using specific observations or real examples of life from many experiments

Deductive - begins with a theory or hypothesis and find a conclusion

Distinguish between a scientific theory and a hypothesis.

A hypothesis is the first suggestion of an idea usually based on an observation.  It attempts to answer questions by putting forth explanations that still need to be tested.  Educated guess.

A theory is a final stage in the proof of an idea where enough evidence has been collected.   Proven.

Know and describe the steps in a scientific investigation.

1. Ask a question
2. Make observation/do research
3. state hypothesis
4. test hypothesis, write procedure, control all variables
5. collect data, do the experiment, record data in data table
6. analyze data, make graph, statistical analysis
7. make conclusions, always start with "my hypotheses was"
8. ask another question

Explain how evolution impacts the lives of all humans.

evolution is the thought that we are descendants of ancestral species, but with natural selection, we are more ready/prepared for the environment we live in

Why are chemical elements important for life?

Living organisms are made of chemical elements, and so are the things they consume in order to remain alive. 

What are the 4 elements that make up 96% of all living matter? 

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

What are subatomic particles? Know the charge, mass and location of the 3 subatomic particles of an atom.

Subatomic particles are smaller than an atom or a cluster of such particles.  3 Subatomic particles of an atom are:

1. Protons - mass of 1.0 amu (atomic mass units), charge of =1 and located in the nucleus of an atom.
2. Electrons - mass of .0005 amu, charge of -1 and located in the orbitals of the atom's energy levels.
3. Neutrons - mass of 1.005 amu, no overall charge and located with the proton in the nucleus.

What is an isotope? How are isotopes used? 

An isotope is elements with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.  They are used in PET scans or radiometric dating.

Explain the formation of compounds. Which subatomic particle plays a role in forming chemical bonds? What determines the reactivity of an element? 

The formation of compounds consists of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio. 

Electrons play a part in forming chemical bonds.

The reactivity of an element is determined by its electron affinity and its ionization energy, basically the number of electrons in the outermost shell.

Contrast these terms: atomic number/mass number; element/atom; compound/molecule. 

Atomic Number-the number of protons in an atom

Mass Number-the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Element-a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by ordinary chemical means
Atom-the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element

Compound-a substance consisting of two or more different elements in a mixed ratio
Molecule-two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds

Distinguish between ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

Ionic and covalent bonds are intramolecular bonds, meaning that they exist inside the molecule. These bonds deal with the exchange of electrons, ionic (solid) transfers electrons and covalent (liquid/gas) shares electrons.

Hydrogen bonds are intermolecular bonds, meaning they bond two separate molecules. These bonds deal with the attraction between hydrogen and electronegative elements such as O and F.

Define a chemical reaction and explain how it changes the composition of matter.

A chemical reaction is a process that involves rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of a substance, as opposed to a change in physical form or a nuclear reaction.

Chemical reactions do not destroy matter they just rearrange it in various ways.

Contrast polar and nonpolar covalent bonds. Which elements are highly electronegative?

Polar covalent bonds are when two atoms differ in electronegativity.  Nonpolar covalent bonds are when two atoms have the same electronegativity.

Oxygen, fluorine and chlorine are elements that are highly electronegative.

What kind of bond joins H and O to form water? What kind of bonds causes water molecules to be attracted to one another?

A covalent bond joins H and O to form water.

Polar covalent bonds cause water molecules to be attracted to one another.

Know and describe the life-supporting properties of water.

1. Hydrogen bonds make liquid water cohesive - cohesion creates surface tension and helps water to move from plant roots to leaves.
2. Water's hydrogen bonds moderate temperature - heat is absorbed when hydrogen bonds break and released when hydrogen bonds form.
3. Ice floats because it is less dense than liquid water - floating ice protects lakes and oceans from freezing solid.
4. Water is the solvent of life - Polar or charged solutes dissolve when water molecules surround them.
5. The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic conditions - a compound that releases H+ in solution is an acid and one that accepts H+ is a base.
6. Scientists study the effects of rising atmospheric CO2 on coral reef ecosystems - the acidification of the ocean threatens coral reefs and other marine organisms.
7. The search for extraterrestrial life centers on the search for water - the emergent properties of water support life on Earth and may contribute to the potential for life to have evolved on other planets.

. pH is the measurement of what? Explain the pH scale. Compare and contrast acids and bases.

pH is the measurement of how acidic or basic(alkaline) a solution is.

The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is.  It ranges from 0 to 14.  A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic and greater than 7 is basic.

Acids have a sour taste, 1-6 on the pH scale and turn blue litmus paper red.

Bases have a bitter taste, 8-14 on pH scale and turn red litmus paper blue.

Why is carbon so important in life?

Carbon is the basic building block for all forms of life on Earth. Fortunately, carbon is also one of the most abundant elements on our planet. Like all matter, carbon can neither be created nor destroyed and so all living organisms must find a way to continually reuse the finite carbon supply.

What is the importance of functional groups to molecules? Know the basic functional groups  listed in your textbook

Functional groups affect a molecule's function by participating in chemical reactions.  These groups are polar therefore they are water-loving (hydrophilic).

• Carbonyl group - carbon atom is linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom.
• Carboxyl group - consists of a carbon double bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group.
• Hydroxyl group - consists of a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom.
• Amino group - nitrogen bonded to two hydrogens.
• Phosphate group - phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms.
  [image][image]

How does a cell make a variety of large molecules from a small set of molecules?

By using a dehydration synthesis method: a chemical reaction that builds up molecules by losing water molecules.

A protein called an enzyme removes an OH (hydroxyl group from one molecule and a hydrogen atom from another forming H2O and a new covalent bond between the two smaller components. By repeating this ration many times, cells can build extremely large polymers consisting of thousands of monomers

Explain the reactions of dehydration and hydrolysis.

Dehydration synthesis is the formation of a new compound by the removal of oxygen and hydrogen from reactants, while hydrolysis is the breakdown of a compound through a chemical reaction with water. 

Define monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides and explain their functions.

Monosaccharides are a single molecule of sugar. They are an energy source.

Disaccharides are two molecules of monosaccharides causing dehydration synthesis. They help to build glucose

Polysaccharides consist of chains of monosaccharides and disaccharides.  sources of energy

What are the monomers of carbohydrates?

A monosaccharide is a monomer, or the simplest form, of carbohydrates.

Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, ribose, and glyceraldehyde.

What are triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids? Explain their functions.

Triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids are lipids.  

• Triglycerides - Protect and insulate body organs. [major source of stored energy in the body]
• phospholipids - Transport of lipids in plasma.[chief components of the cell membranes]
• steroids - Aid fat digestion and absorption, normal bone growth/function, normal reproductive function, maintain blood glucose level, regulate salt and water balance

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?

The major difference between saturated and unsaturated fats is in their bond composition. Saturated fats have a single bond while unsaturated have several bonds between the carbon atoms.

Explain how trans fats are formed in food. Describe the evidence that suggests that eating trans fats is more unhealthy than consuming saturated fats. 

Trans fats are one type of fatty acid formed during the processing of partial hydrogenation.

A prospective study was used to determine that trans fats are bad for you.  This type of study follows a group forward.

What are the monomers of proteins?

An amino acid is a monomer, or the building block, of proteins.

Describe each level of protein folding/structure

(1o , 2o , 3o , 4o ).

1. Primary Structure - The specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide chain.
2. Secondary Structure - The regular local patterns of coils or folds of a polypeptide chain.
3. Tertiary Structure - The overall three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide due to interactions of the R groups of the amino acids making up the chain.
4. Quaternary Structure - The shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits.

Compare and contrast the two types of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is like a blueprint of biological guidelines that a living organism must follow to exist and remain functional.

RNA, or ribonucleic acid, helps carry out this blueprint's guidelines.

Of the two, RNA is more versatile than DNA, capable of performing numerous, diverse tasks in an organism, but DNA is more stable and holds more complex information for longer periods of time. 

What is the purpose of a microscope? What is the use for the 3 kinds of microscopes described in your textbook?

The purpose of the microscope is to focus clearly on the object and enlarge it so that it is visible to the eye.

1. Light microscope(LM) - can display living cells.  
2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) - reveal the ultrastructure of cells surface.
3. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) -  reveal the ultrastructure of cells internal structure.

What is the cell theory?

cell theory is a scientific theory which describes the properties of cells. These cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. 

Explain how cell size is limited (surface area to volume ratio).

The surface area to volume ratio (SA:V) limits cell size because the bigger the cell gets, the less surface area it has for its size.

What are the main differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells? Describe the difference in their cell parts. Know examples of eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. 

eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while prokaryotic cells lack these structures. Prokaryotic cells are the simplest of all living things, and they only exist as unicellular bacteria.

Eukaryotic ex: almost all organisms you are familiar with are eukaryotes; if you can see it then its eukaryote. grass, potatoes, pine trees, mushrooms, flies

Prokaryotic ex: streptococcus, ecoli, archaea

Describe the structure and functions of plasma membranes.

The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is a thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell.Its function is to protect the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell, while keeping other substances out.

Why is compartmentalization important to eukaryotic cells?

Compartmentalization allows eukaryotic cells to perform otherwise incompatible chemical reactions simultaneously. It also increases the surface area of the cell membranes, which are necessary for obtaining nutrients and excreting waste. Thus, compartmentalization is a means of increasing membrane area without increasing the size of the cell.

Compare the structures of plant and animal cells. Note the function of each cell part.

Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells, so they have several features in common, such as the presence of a cell membrane, and cell organelles, like the nucleus, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum.  Plant cell has a rigid, thick wall. 

• Nucleus and ribosomes carry out the genetic control of the cell
• Organelles manufacture, distribute and breakdown molecules include the golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles and peroxisomes
• mitochondria and chloroplasts function in energy processing
• Structural support, movement and communication between cells are the function of cytoskeleton, plasma membrane and plant cell wall.

Compare the structures and functions of chloroplasts and mitochondria.

They both have two membranes, and the inside of the chloroplast also has stacks of membrane disks that are individually called thylakoids and collectively called grana.

1. The chloroplast builds glucose in order to store energy for the cell. It uses carbon dioxide and water and releases oxygen during this process of photosynthesis.
2. The mitochondrion breaks glucose down in order to get the energy out to make ATP. ATP is what the cells use directly for energy for any cell processes. The process uses glucose and oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and water during cellular respiration. 

What is the endosymbiont theory and what does it say about mitochondria and chloroplasts?

According to the endosymbiotic theory, the mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small prokaryotes that began living within larger cells.  These prokaryotes may have gained entry to the larger cell as undigested prey or parasites.

Describe the cytoskeleton. Compare the structures and functions of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.

The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that extend throughout a cell.

• Microtubules - are straight, hollow tubes composed of globular proteins called tubulins. They shape and support the cell.
• Intermediate filaments are found in the cells of animals. various fibrous proteins that super coil into cables.
• Microfilaments are solid rods composed of proteins in a twisted double chain.  involved in cell movements.

Describe the extracellular matrix of animal cells.

The extracellular layer matrix (ECM) helps to hold cells together in tissues and protects and supports the plasma membrane.

Compare the structures and functions of tight junctions, anchoring junctions, and gap junctions

1. Tight Junctions - the plasma membranes of neighboring cells are knit tightly together by proteins.  they prevent leakage of fluid across layers of cells.
2. Anchoring junctions function like rivets, fastening cells together into strong sheets.
3. Gap junctions, also called communication junctions, are channels that allow small molecules to flow through protein lined pores between cells.  common in embryos.

What is the importance of a cell wall for plant cells? Do animal cells have cell walls? 

Animal cells don’t have a cell wall, because they don’t need one; in plant cells, a cell wall maintains the shape of the cell, acting as its exoskeleton, which allows plants to stand upright; animal cells don't need cell walls because animals have a skeleton (indo- or exo-) for structural support.

Describe the four functional categories of organelles in eukaryotic cells. 

1. Genetic control:  Nucleus and Ribosomes
2. Manufacturing, distributions, and breakdown:  Rough ER, Smooth ER, Golgi apparatus, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes 
3. Energy Processing:  Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
4. Structural support, movement, and communication between cells:  Cytoskeleton, plasma membrane, extracellular matrix, cell junctions, and cell walls

1. Describe the fluid mosaic structure of cell membranes. 

The fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane is how scientists describe what the cell membrane looks and functions like, because it is made up of a bunch of different molecules that are distributed across the membrane.

2. What are the functions of membrane proteins? 

cell cohesion, relaying signals between the inside and outside of a cell and transporting proteins across the membrane. 

How are phospholipid molecules arranged in the plasma membrane? How does this arrangement affect the structure and properties of cell membranes (including the plasma membrane)?

In a dual layer; the tails are facing towards each other, so there is a layer of phospholipid heads on the outer surface of the cell membrane, & another layer of heads on the inner surface of the membrane. 

This makes it easier for small neutral charged molecules to pass through.

4. What is diffusion? 

Diffusion is one type of passive transport. the tendency for particles of any substance to spread out into the available space.

 What is passive transport? 

Passive transport does not require an input of cellular energy because it is instead driven by the tendency of the system to grow in entropy.  Because a cell does not have to do work when molecules diffuse across its membrane.

Define osmosis. 

movement of a solvent (such as water) through a semipermeable membrane (as of a living cell) into a solution of higher solute concentration that tends to equalize the concentrations of solute on the two sides of the membrane.

Distinguish between hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions.

1. Hyopotonic - a solution with a solute concentration lower than that of the cell.
2. Hypertonic - solution with a higher solute concentration.
3. isotonic - the volume of the cells remains the same.

Distinguish between exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated  

Exocytosis is involved in the elimination of waste substances, which are produced by the digestion inside these vesicles.

endocytosis is taking in of matter into a living cell by forming vesicle by the cell membrane

phagocytosis is taking in of large solid matter into the cell by forming phagosomes.

receptor-mediated endocytosis, macromolecules in the extracellular fluid are recognized by the specific receptors in the plasma membrane. 

9. Define and compare kinetic energy, potential energy, chemical energy, and heat. 

Kinetic energy: the energy of movement
Potential energy: energy an object possesses resulting from location or altitude
Chemical energy: potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction
Heat: energy from the random molecular movement

What are the two laws of thermodynamics and explain how they relate to biological systems.  

First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only change form or be transferred from one object to another.

Second Law of Thermodynamics states that when energy is transferred, there will be less energy available at the end of the transfer process than at the beginning.

The laws of thermodynamics are important unifying principles of biology. These principles govern the chemical processes (metabolism) in all biological organisms.

What is the difference between endergonic and exergonic reactions? 

The difference between an exergonic reaction and an endergonic reaction is that an exergonic reaction involves release of energy, while an endergonic reaction involves absorption of energy.

Explain how cells use cellular respiration and energy coupling to survive. 

Cellular respiration:  chemical energy stored in organic molecules is converted to a form that the cell can use to perform work.

Energy coupling:  the use of energy released from exergonic reactions to drive essential endergonic reactions.

What is the role of ATP in the cell? 

 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a small molecule that acts as a coenzyme within a cell. The main role of ATP is to provide energy. 

What are enzymes? Why are they important  

Enzymes are molecules that function as biological catalysts, increasing the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.  Almost all enzymes are proteins.

They are vital for life and serve a wide range of important functions in the body, such as aiding in digestion and metabolism. Some enzymes help break large molecules into smaller pieces 

Explain how competitive and non-competitive inhibitors alter an enzyme’s activity. 

Competitive inhibitors: block the active site of the enzyme so a substrate cannot enter
Noncompetitive inhibitors: change the shape of the active site by entering the enzyme at a location other than the active site

What is the overall chemical reaction for cellular respiration? 

C6H12O6 = 6 O2 ->->->6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP + Heat

The overall reaction in cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction which releases heat. 

Which organelles is the site of cellular respiration? 

The mitochondria of the eukaryotic cells are the sites of cellular respiration and where most of the steps take place.

Why do we breathe oxygen? During which step of cellular respiration is oxygen used?

Oxygen is the essential ingredient for making energy in a process called cellular respiration. 

Oxygen is used during the electron transport system

Explain how the human body uses its daily supply of ATP.

Cellular respiration banks ATP molecules and can produce up to 32 ATP's in one glucose molecule.  The rest is released as heat as it needs a continues supply of this for your body to function

How is the energy in a glucose molecule released during cellular respiration? 

During cellular respiration, glucose breaks down into carbon dioxide and water. 

Contrast oxidation and reduction. 

Oxidation - loss of electrons from one substance

Reduction - is the addition of electrons to another substance

Describe the general roles of dehydrogenase, NADH, and the electron transport chain in cellular respiration.

Dehydrogenase:  Removes the Hydrogen atoms from NADH

NADH:  Electron Transport Chain: Transports the Hydrogen atoms that NADH lost

Overall these work together to transform oxygen into water.

Compare the reactants, products, and energy yield of the three stages of cellular respiration. (You are NOT responsible for all of the intermediate steps. For example, know that glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate in glycolysis. 2 ATPs are produced, and 2 NADH pick up energy that will be used in the final step of cellular respiration.) 

Stage 1:  Glycolysis breaks glucose into 2 molecules of a 3 carbon compound called pyruvate. 1 ATP produced.

Stage 2:  Pyruvate oxidation is oxidized to a 2 carbon compound (CO2), then breaks down glucose into carbon dioxide.  supply 3rd stage with electrons.  1 ATP produced.

Stage 3:  Oxidative phosphorylation:  NADH and FADH2 shuttle electrons to electron transport chains.  Electrons passed to  O2, which then becomes H2O.  Another process in this stage is chemiosmosis which is used to make 1 ATP.

Compare the reactants, products, and energy yield of alcohol and lactic acid fermentation. 

The reactants of alcohol is glucose, its product is 2 ethyl alcohol and its energy yield is 2 ATP
Lactic acid reactant is glucose, its product is 2 lactic acid and its energy yield is 2 ATP

Distinguish between strict anaerobes and facultative anaerobes. 

Strict anaerobes, also known as obligate anaerobes, require anaerobic conditions and are poisoned by oxygen.

Facultative anaerobes can make ATP either by fermentation or by oxidative phosphorylation, depending on whether O2 is available.

The difference in these two is oxygen kills one and flourishes the other one's growth.

How are carbohydrates, fats, and proteins used as fuel for cellular respiration? 

carbohydrates- glucose to pyruvate to ATP
fats- make cellular fuel because the contain hydrogen atoms (energy rich electrons) also make twice as much ATP the carbohydrates/ proteins
proteins- amino acids to pyruvate to ATP

Define autotrophs, heterotrophs, producers, and photoautotrophs. 

Producers: living things that make their own food through a process called photosynthesis

Autotrophs: an organism that is able to form nutritional organic substances from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide.

Heterotrophs: an organism deriving its nutritional requirements from complex organic substances.

Photoautotrophs: organisms that carry out photosynthesis. Using energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are converted into organic materials to be used in cellular functions such as biosynthesis and respiration.

Describe the structure of chloroplasts and their location in a leaf. 

Chloroplast consists of an outer and inner membrane, a filling fluid called stroma, and thylakoids stacked into granum. Chloroplasts are found most abundantly in the interior tissue of leaves called mesophyll

What is the overall chemical reaction for photosynthesis? In which organelle does photosynthesis occur?

The chloroplast contains the chlorophyll needed to capture the light energy so that it can be processed into energy and food for the plant.

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts (which contains the pigment chlorophyll) of the cells of green plants, and in one-celled autotrophs. 

Compare the reactants and products of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle.  

Light reactions convert solar energy into chemical energy. They use light energy to drive the synthesis of two molecules: ATP and NADPH. This stage of photosynthesis does not produce sugar. The Calvin cycle makes sugar from carbon dioxide. The ATP powers the sugar synthesis and the NADPH provides the high energy electrons for the reduction of carbon dioxide to glucose.

How do photosystems capture solar energy? 

their light-harvesting complexes function as a light-gathering antenna; the pigments absurd photons and pass the energy from molecule to molecule, etc.

What is the electron transport chain? Explain how chemiosmosis generates ATP.  

An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of compounds that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H ions) across a membrane.

Chemiosmosis generates ATP by allowing protons to pass through the membrane and uses the kinetic energy to phosphorylate ADP, making ATP. 

What molecule is split to produce oxygen during the light reactions? What happens to the oxygen produced during photosynthesis?

Water is the molecule that is split to produce oxygen during the light reactions.

A part oxygen produced during photosynthesis is stored by the plant for its use during the absence of sun and the rest is let off to the atmosphere.

What 2 molecules are produced during the light reactions and used during the Calvin Cycle? 

NADPH and ATP

Compare photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. 

1. In cyclic photophosphorylation, the electrons return to the chlorophyll.

2. In noncyclic photophosphorylation, the electrons are used to reduce NADP, and electrons are returned to chlorophyll from H2O or H2S.

What molecule enters the Calvin cycle? What is the product of the Calvin cycle? (You are NOT responsible for all of the intermediate molecules.) 

Carbon enters the Calvin Cycle.

LOOK UP 2nd part

Compare the mechanisms that C3, C4, and CAM plants use to obtain and use carbon dioxide. 

C3 plants use co2 directly from the air because the first organic compound produced is the three-carbon compound 3-PGA. C4 plants have special adaptations that save water without shutting down photosynthesis. C4 plants keep their stomata closed when it's hot which is most of the time to prevent the release of water. CAM plants conserve water by opening the stomata and admitting CO2 mainly at night.