A disaccharide. It is a glucose and a galactose attached by a glycosidic linkage. It is in milk. Digested by lactase released in the small intestine. Some people do not have lactose and cannot digest milk: lactose intolerance.

Lactose is made in the epithelial cells of the mammary gland from glucose obtained from the blood stream (half is turned to galactose first) or  from VFAs. The percentage of lactose in milk is positively correlated to milk volume.

Proteins that speed up chemical reactions without being used up by lowering the activation energy of a reaction. Enzyme has an active site where substrates are weakly held. After the reaction is finishd, the substrates leave, freeing the enzme to do more reactions.Very important to digestion. Each enzyme has a specific temperature and pH at which it will work best. In humans at around 37C. In bacteria 77C. If it ends with "-ase" the first part is telling you what its substrate is. Example: amylase digests amylose. 

Do not take enzyme supplements. They are proteins and will be digested, not help digest. This is why insulin must be injected.

A Swedish botanist from the 1700s. Came up with the the idea of Latin names for all species. A (L.) at the end of a Latin name means he named that species.

Also discovered that different flowers open at different times of day.

The reproductive structure of angiospermms that produces and attracts gametes. Aids in pollen dispersal and collection. Develops the seeds and fruit.

Flower development is dependant on photoperiodism and sometimes vernalization. The gene FT is activated in the leaves and travels to apical meristems, changing the bud's identity to a flower rather than a vegetative shoot.

Ovary (plant)

When a seed imbibes enough water to become active. This can also be triggered by lighting, temperature, or chemicals. Phytochromes are active in light-sensitive germinations. Red light is the optimum light for germination, but far red light inhibits it; this is because of chromophore isomers. When light becomes optimal (perhaps a nearby tree died or a field was plowed)

The radicle emerges first. It pushes through the soil downward, sensing gravity with its statoliths. The shoot emerges next. In monocots they enter "flag" stage. In dicots, they enter "hook" stage. In hook stage the cotyledons are still underground, but the meristem is above the ground; this makes it vulnerable to herbicides or frost at this time. Light causes the hook to straighten.

In corn the tassel part is the stamen, and the silks are the carpels. Corn would not survive without humans because it has no other method of spreading its seeds.

When using nitrogen fertilizers, lots of nitrogen is stored in the stalk. Stalk can no longer be used for animal feed, since nitrogen is fatal to animals (binds to hemoglobin).

Also called vegetative reproduction. Reproduction that skips the haploid stage. Only one parent is required. The offspring are genetically identical clones of the parent. Allows the parent to pass on its entire genetic legacy. Good in situations where there are few other plants around to reproduce with, or no pollinators, or if the parent is very well adapted to the environment. Bad if the environment suddenly changes, favouring genetic diversity.

In animals, asexual reproduction increases the population size much faster than sexual reproduction.

In plants its when a fruit forms without seeds in it. Not a form of reproduction. Either from hybrid plants or plants that were produced asexually. Example: cucumbers, bananas.

In animals its when offspring are produced from eggs that are not fertilized. Offspring may be diploid or haploid.

Aerobic and anaerobic respiration, but mostly aerobic. 34% efficient (cars are 25%). Some steps are anabolic, but overal it is a catabolic process.

Organic compound + oxygen -> CO2 + H2O + Energy

Pyruvate turns into lactate. No CO2 is released. Bacteria that do lactic acid fermentation are used in cheesemaking. Occurs in muscles under strenuous exersize. 

This kind of fermentation may occur in the rumen if there is too much starch in the diet. This is very unhealthy for the animal.

"Mouth". Pores in a leaf where carbon dioxide enters and oxygen exits and water. Generally open in the day during photosynthesis, and closed at night to prevent water loss. This is guided by light, CO2 levels, and an internal "clock". They open even in the dark. They have a Circadian rhythm.

The major site of water loss. Desert plants have much less stomata than marsh plants to conserve water. High light exposure and low CO2 levels in early development can decrease stomata density.

Edible part is the root, leaves, stems, buds, or immature flowers. Frost tolerant. Can germinate at 4C to 5C. Store in the fridge, except potatoes, because the starches will turn to sugars.

Nitrate is stored in the roots.

Edible part is the fruit. Not frost tolerant. Germinates between 12C to 30C. Store at room temperature.

Nitrate is stored in the leaves.

Used by animals for energy, building blocks, and regulatory molecules. Acquisition, ingestion, digestion, absorption, metabolism, and waste disposal. Nutrients are minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, or lipids. Eating too little, too much, or the wrong combinations of these things can cause health problems.

Exact human nutritional needs are hard to measure, especially in children because of ethics. Needs may vary person to person. Studies must be on nutritional defects or epidemics.

When light hits a pigment in PS I the excited state is passed like a hot potato around until it reaches P680. P680 passes the electron to the primary electron acceptor, becoming P680+. In the reaction centre, a catalyst breaks water, releasing two electrons, two H+ ions, and one oxygen atom. The two electrons are returned to the P680 pair. The H+ ions are pumped into the thylakoid space. The oxygen is released into the air. The excited electron moves down the electron transport chain to photosystem II.

Its half life is 2 hours. Constantly being replaced. Moved to the non-stacked region of thylakoid and repaired.

CO2 is pumped to bundle-sheath cells, where Calvin cycle takes place. Sugarcane, corn, other members of the grass family. More efficient use of nitrogen due to less need for rubisco. Have bundle-sheath cells around their leaf veins. All Calvin cycles occur here.

1. In the mesophyll cells, PEP carboxylase enzyme attaches CO2 to PEP, creating a 4-carbon compound oxaloacetate.

2. This is exported to the bundle-sheath cells through plasmodesmata.

3. In the bundle-sheath cells, CO2 is released from oxoalacetate and used in the Calvin cycle, releasing pyruvate, which is returned to the mesophyll. In the mesopyll ATP is used to turn pyruvate into PEP. To generate this ATP, the bundle-sheath cells undergo cyclic electron flow. Advantageous in hot arid climates.

Pollen is tranfered from one plant to another via flies. The flowers are red and fleshy and have an odour like rotten meat. Flies mistake the flower for a rotting corpse and lay their eggs on it. They become dusted with pollen in the process. The eggs die when they hatch.

(20:4, n-6) An omega-6 fatty acid with 20 carbons and 4 double bond kinks. The first kink is at carbon 6 counting from the tail end of the chain.

Essential to all members of the cat family. Meat is high in arachidonic acid. Cats cannot survive on a vegetarian diet or on dog food.

Amico acids that humans cannot synthesize in the body, and must be obtained through the diet. 

Tryptophan, Valine, Threonine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Phenylaline, and Methionine.

(TV TILL Past Midnight).

Methionine converts into cycstein. Infants also require histidine. Sheep need high cystein in their diet because they can't make this conversion.

If you don't have enough protein in the diet your body will start to eat itself. Animal proteins in meat, eggs, and milk are complete sources that contain all 8. Most plant proteins are incomplete, a variety of plants must be eaten. Some animals have ways to store amino acids in storage proteins.

A fatty acid where the first kink occurs on the 6th carbon counting from the tail end of the chain.

Include arachidonic and linoleic fatty acids.

A fatty acid where the first kink occurs on the 3rd carbon counting from the tail end. Includes alpha linoleic fatty acid, EPA, and DHA.

Very important for brain development. People may have evolved large brains due to eating fish, high in omega-3s. Breast milk contains omega-3 fatty acids.

When molecules flow in or out of a cell via transport protein while following their concentration gradient. Called facilitated diffusion. No ATP is consumed.

Sometimes no protein is needed. This is called diffusion.