Some motor units in any muscles are always activated

-Stabilizes joints and bones

-Maintain body position

Loss of muscles mass due to no stimulation of the muscle

*Broken bone in cast

• Special connection between cardia muscle cells
• Heart muscles fibers not stimulated by neurons

• Smooth Muscle- Actin and myosin arranged spirally in cell
• Smooth Muscle can't generate as much tension- greater range of control

Expanded region at the ends of bones-composed of spongy bone

*Site of red blood cell production

Low bone mass and natural deterioration of bone tissue

-Increased risk of fractures

"Scare Tissue"

New blood vessels for into clot after a few days.

Bringing in cells to reform the bone.

Midline of the body

Provides protection and support

Little to no movement, joining two bones togethers we don't want to move

EX: Skull & Teeth

Limited movement, very strong

-Bones connected by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage 

EX: Ribs & Vertibrae

Dense fibrous connective tissue

-Keep bones in place- strengthen and reenforce the joint

"Filler"

Provide protection for cartilage- shock absorber

Small fluid filled pockets

-Form when tendons and ligaments rub against other tissue = decrease in friction

Body part moves in a wide circle

Lips and Cheeks

• Hard Palate & Soft Palate

Teeth break down food into smaller pieces

-Easier to breakdown chemically

-Easier to digest

Uses an enzyme to break down starch

-Coats the food so its easier to swallow

-Neutralizes acids

Wad of food that the tongue pushes back to the pharynx

-Swallowing is voluntary 

Tube passing from pharynx to the stomach

• Peristalsis- a rythmic contraction of the muscularios that moves food bolus along the digestive tract
• Constriction of esophagus at stomach relaxes to allow food bolus in
• Contracts to keep in acidic stomach contents

Found behind the stomach

Secrets pancreatic juices- breaks down to neutralize chyme and enzymes to digest starch

Inflammation of the liver

-Jaundice, fatigue & abdominal pain

Composed of smooth muscle

-Involuntary control

Skeletal Muscle

-Voluntary control

Molecules that speed up chemical reactions in our bodies

*Every enzyme is a "key" to a specific substrate 

Completely man-made

Occurs when unsaturated fats are hydrogenated.

"Bad cholesterol"

Cholesterol from the liver to the new cells develops into clotting factor

"Good cholesterol"

Want to be high

carry cholesterol from cells to liver

-> cholesterol in liver is turned into bile salts

Promotes calcium absorption in the intestine

*Sunlight- produced in the skin when exposed to UV rays

Deficiency- loss of calcium, weakness, rickets

Excess- vomiting, weight loss

Important for vision, bone growth, regulates the immune system

Deficiency- night blindness, retinal damage

Excess- leads to birth defects

Molecules and ions are actively and passively reabsorbed into blood

-Sodium ions actively transported into blood

CI- passively follows

Promotes excretion of sodium

-Production controlled by nephrons

Promotes the reabsorption of water in the DCT and collecting duct

-Decreases production of urine.

-Occurs when sleeping or resting

Secreted by atrial cells when they get stretched too much because of increased blood volume

-Inhibits production of renin and aldosterone

-Secrets sodium and water to balance tonicity 

Brain and Spinal Cord

-Integrates processes and coordinates sensory data and motor commands

Sensory information to and carry motor commands 

-Limbs and fingers gain sensory information

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

"Lou Gehrig's Disease"

Progressive neurological disease caused by the degeneration of motor neurons

-Muscle weakness and atrophy

Excitatory-Fire now!!!

Inhibitory- Stop, don't fire!

Voluntary control of skeletal muscle

-Movement is based on reflexes- stimulus activates sensory receptor, which triggers a sensory neuron to carry its message to the CNS

Responsible for "fight or flight"

-Response of body to emergency

-Accelerates heart rate, dilates bronchi, increases intake of oxygen and blood flow -> more ATP

Nerves responsible for activities that conserve energy.

-Slows heart rate, constricts bronchi, increases digestive rate

Extends from base of the brain, encased in the vertebral canal. 

-Links peripheral nerves and the brain-able to send messages to the whole body

Largest and highly developed

-Learning, speech, and memory control

-Direct incoming information to appropriate portion of the brain

Processes information about where we are in the world

-Provides smooth, coordinated movements in skeletal muscles

-Receives sensory input from eyes and ears about our position

Connects all high brain centers with spinal cord

-Regulating respiration

Reflex centers

-Loud noises- turn towards it.

Hypothalamus: control pituitary glan

Thalamus: receiving & processing & transferring sensory information

Respond to chemical substances

(Taste and Smell)

Respond to mechanical forces

-Touch, equilibrium, hearing

What you see externally- composed of stratified epithelial 

-Keratinized as cells move to surface

Specialized cells deep with epidermis-

Produce melanin- a pigment responsible for skin color

Protection!

Cover the tips of fingers and toes

Insulation of heat

-Contraction of smooth muscles at base of follicles makes hair stand up

Chemoreceptors called taste buds

-Sour, sweet, bitter, salty, umami

Thin, darkly pigmented middle layer

Iris-color of iris is determine at choroid layer

Pupil- a hole in the center of the iris through which light enters the eyeball

Lens-allows for focusing of near and far objects

Clouding of lens that effects the vision

-Age related, proteins clump and lens changes color (yellow/brownish)

Contains photoreceptors 

Rod Cells- provide information about presence of light

-Night vision, perception of motion

Cone Cells- information about fine details and color

Group of diseases that can damage the optic nerve.

Increase in pressure- start to lose peripheral vision and can lead to vision loss

Image in inverted and flipped left to right.

-To keep the image focus- lens undergoes visual accommodation- lens changes shape to change focal point

Ossciesles

(3 Bones of the Middle Ear)

1. Malles (Hammer)
2. Incus (Anvil)
3. Stapes (Sturp)

full of fluid inside the skull

• Semi-circular Canals- have the mechanoreceptors for balance
• Cochlea- Contains mechanoreceptors for hearing

Pressure waves from oval windows are transmitted to fluid in the cochlea.

As pressure waves move fluid- causes membranes in the cochlea to vibrate which contains hair cells that are stimulated to be interpreted as sound

Detect rational and angular movements.

-Movement in the correct plane causes movement within the canal

a brief, intense sensation of spinning

Causes by the otilths being moved into semicircular canals

• Nervous system: organized to respond quickly, communication is through neurotransmitters
• Endocrine System: Slower prolonged time frame, communication is through hormones

Chemical released in one tissues, travels through another.

• Usually takes a while for response to kick in.
• Each hormone has a specific target cell

Hormone that controls an action in opposite direction

Insulin- decrease blood sugar

Glucagon- increase blood sugar

Hormone is produced due to stimulation- action of that hormone decreases the action of the stimulus 

EX: ADH

Stimulation leads to the production of a hormone, whose action increases magnitude of stimulus

EX: Oxytocin- uterine contractions during pregnancy

Stores hormones

ADH & Oxycotin

ADH-regulates salt/water balance- tells distal convoluted tube to absorb more water

Produces:

Insulin and Glucogain

Secreted when we have high blood glucose levels

-Stimulates uptake of glucose into our cells

Secreted when you have low blood sugar levels

-Stimulates live to break down glycogen, use fat and protein as an energy source

Body cells can't take up or metabolize glucose

-Get high blood glucose levels, little glucose gets into cells

Insulin dependent

-Pancreas does not produce insulin, no way to maintain blood sugar level

Non-Insulin Dependent

Liver and muscle cells don't respond to insulin.

**Produced in the ADRENAL MEDULLA**

To provide shot term changes to the body during a crisis

-Released into the body in order to stimulate sympathetic division of the autonomic system

Promotes the breakdown of muscle protein into amino acids which liver converts to glucose.

Promotes metabolism of fatty acids of glucose

Aldosterone- Maintain bodies water balance regulating NA+ and K+ levels in the body.

-See increase with low levels of NA+ & K+, stressed out