Term
| Bones of the human skeleton |
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Definition
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Term
| What is meant by the hierarchical arrangement of muscles? |
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Definition
| muscle fiber > single fiber > myofibril > sarcomere |
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Term
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Definition
| functional unit of contraction |
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Term
| How are Z lines and thick and thin filaments arranged in a sarcomere? |
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Definition
z-lines are vertical lines that delineate each sarcomere.
Thin filaments = 2 strands of actin and other protein
Thick filament = myosin |
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Term
| What happens to the appearance of a sarcomere when a muscle contracts? |
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Definition
| The z-lines move but the thick filament doesnt move. Sarcomere gets shorter |
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Term
| What is meant by the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction? |
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Definition
The thick filament attaches to the thin filament, via the myosin head, the filaments move inwards and the muscle contracts
(more details on handout) |
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Term
| Of what protein is the thick filament composed? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the protein’s structure? |
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Definition
| It has a round head, and a tail |
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Term
| What is the molecule’s relationship to ADP and ATP? |
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Definition
ATP------> ADP + P + E
(myosin on arrow) |
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Term
| Of what proteins is the thin filament composed? |
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Definition
| Actin and 2 regulatory protiens |
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Term
| What are the regulatory proteins? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is meant by regulatory proteins? |
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Definition
| proteins embedded in the thin filaments to prevent muscle contraction |
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Term
| What is the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum? |
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Definition
| Specialized ER. Nerve impulse causes the release of calcium, which ultimately causes a muscle contraction |
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Term
| Know the events of the contraction cycle, including the role of Ca++ from the SR, binding site exposure, crossbridge formation, powerstroke, and how ATP and ADP interact with the myosin head during contraction. |
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Definition
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Term
| How is energy supplied to a muscle to fuel continual maximal contraction? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where does muscle each energy supply come from? |
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Definition
Free ATP
Phosphates (creatine phosphate)
Glycogen Metab |
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Term
| How long does each muscle energy supply last? |
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Definition
Free ATP- (5-6 sec)
Phosphates (creatine phosphate)- 5-10 sec
Glycogen Metab |
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Term
| What are the two pathways by which glycogen (glucose) is degraded in muscles? |
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Definition
| Glycolisis followed by either Krebs cycle or lactic acid cycle |
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Term
| What happens in a muscle under anaerobic conditions |
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Definition
| Lactic acid cycle, net only 2 ATP |
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Term
| What happens in a muscle under aerobic conditions |
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Definition
| cellular respiration, net 38 ATP |
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Term
| What causes muscle fatigue? Delayed muscle soreness? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the characteristics of twitch fibers? |
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Definition
-large nerve cells
-all or nothing response
-low myoglobin content
-ex: chicken breast |
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Term
| What are the characteristics of tonic fibers? |
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Definition
-slow movement
-small nerve fibers
-strong, long duration muscles
-lots of myoglobin
-ex: clam abductor muscles |
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Term
| What is the function of myoglobin? |
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Definition
| It has a high affinity for 02, supplies it to muscles |
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Term
| What is the function of the vertical muscles of insects? |
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Definition
| contract pull thorax/ wings up. Put pressure on longitudinal muscles |
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Term
| What is the function of the longitudinal muscles of insects? |
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Definition
| respond to pressure, distort the top of thorax and wings snap down Causes vertical muscles to stretch |
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Term
| What is the relationship of the nervous system to the insect flight muscles? |
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Definition
| the wings move too fast to move 1 per nerve impulse. Every few beats (up to 40) a nerve impulse arrives |
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Term
| How do the nervous and endocrine systems compare as control systems? |
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Definition
N.S is rapid
E.S. can be fast or slow |
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Term
| What are the series of events that lead from detection of a stimulus to the response of an effector? |
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Definition
| stimulus --> sensory neuron --> integration (brain) --> motor neurons --> effector output |
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Term
| What are sensory neurons? |
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Definition
| neurons that respond to an external stimulus |
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Term
|
Definition
| neurons that result in movement of an effector cell |
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Term
| What structures are effectors? |
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Definition
| muscles, other neurons, etc |
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Term
| What is meant by the Central Nervous System? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is meant by Peripheral Nervous System? |
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Definition
| all nerves in the body outside the brain and spinal cord |
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Term
| What animals have no nerve cells? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| a nervous system that conducts impulses in all directions from a stimulus |
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Term
| What animals have a nerve net? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| a bundle of neurons and blood vessels wrapped in connective tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| specialized nervous system cells |
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Term
| How do nerves and neurons relate to each other? |
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Definition
| nerves are composed of neurons |
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Term
| With what type of symmetry is ganglionization associated? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| a proto brain, or concentration of neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| development of brain in the head |
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Term
| Why are brains in heads and not in butts? |
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Definition
| the majority of our sensory organs are located in our heads |
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Term
| What type of anterior ganglion do higher invertebrates have? |
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Definition
| circumesophagial ganglion |
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Term
| What phyla constitute the higher invertebrates? |
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Definition
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Term
| What type of nerve cord do higher invertebrates have? |
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Definition
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Term
| What type of nerve cord do vertebrates have? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the three “primitive” areas of the vertebrate brain? |
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Definition
| forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain |
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Term
| What is the function of each section of the primitive vertebrate brain? |
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Definition
forebrain- sensory information
midbrain- coordinates effector response info
hindbrain- balance andbody function (HR, BR) |
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Term
| What is the function of the spinal cord? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the three major areas of the cerebrum? |
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Definition
| sensory, motor, and association cortex |
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Term
| What are the three major areas of the cerebrum's functions? |
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Definition
motor- movement
somatosensory- touch reception
association- speech, reasoning, morality, judgement |
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Term
| What evidence is there that the cerebrum evolved more rapidly than the skull (cranium)? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the parts of a neuron? |
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Definition
| cell body (nucleus/ organelles), axons, dendrites |
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Term
| What are the functions of the different parts of the neurons? |
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Definition
axon- transmits signals
dendrites- receive signal
cell body- normal cellular functions |
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Term
| What animal has been very useful in the studying of axons? |
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Definition
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Term
| Why was the giant squid appropriate for the study of axons? |
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Definition
| the axons were very large |
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Term
| What are the relative concentrations and locations of ions in the neuron call and outside the neuron at rest? |
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Definition
High concentration of Na outside
High concentration of K inside |
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Term
| What are leakage channels? |
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Definition
| Sodium and Potassium can get through the membrane without going through voltage gated channels |
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Term
| What maintains the resting potential? |
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Definition
| The sodium potassium pump |
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Term
| How does the sodium potassium pump work |
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Definition
| It actively transports 3 Na out and 2 K in |
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Term
| How is the sodium potassium pump different between vertebrates and invertebrates? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is meant by a resting potential and a polarized cell? |
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Definition
| The resting potential is -70 mV and a polarized cell is a cell with negative voltage (typically at the resting potential) |
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Term
| What is the voltage difference between the inside and outside of a neuron at rest? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the immediate effect of a stimulus on the membrane of a neuron? |
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Definition
| Voltage gated sodium channels open |
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Term
| What is the sequence of events in the movement of Na+ into the neuron? |
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Definition
| a stimulus or nerve impulse alters the membrane potential opening voltage gated sodium channels |
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Term
| Why does it move into the neuron? |
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Definition
| electrical and concentration gradients |
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Term
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Definition
| After Na channels open, K channels open, and it rushes out of the cell |
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Term
| What is meant by voltage-gated channels? |
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Definition
| protein channels that will not open unless the membrane potential is altered by a stimulus or a nerve impulse |
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Term
| What causes depolarization? |
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Definition
| Na entering the cell, and the cell becoming positive |
|
|
Term
| what causes repolarization? |
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Definition
| K channels opening and K leaving the cell |
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Term
| How long does an action potential last? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| How is the resting potential restored? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| How much of a neuron’s ATP is used to restore the resting potential? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| where a neuron meets another neuron, gland or muscle |
|
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Term
| what is A presynaptic fiber? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what is a Postsynaptic fiber? |
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Definition
| muscle, gland, another neuron |
|
|
Term
| what is a Neuromuscular junction? |
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Definition
| where a neuron meets muscle fibers |
|
|
Term
| what are Synaptic vesicles? |
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Definition
| cellular structures that contain neurotransmitters |
|
|
Term
| what is a Neurotransmitter? |
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Definition
| a chemical that opens ligand gated channels and causes a response in post synaptic cells |
|
|
Term
| what is a Synaptic cleft? |
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Definition
| the space between the pre and post synaptic cells at the synapse |
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Term
| What is the effect of an action potential on the synaptic vesicles? |
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Definition
| they release neurotransmitters |
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Term
| How is exocytosis involved in transmission across a synapse? |
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Definition
| neurotransmitters leave the presynaptic cells via exocytosis |
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|
Term
| What are receptor molecules? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Where are receptor molecules located? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is meant by a ligand (chemically)-gated channel? |
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Definition
| A protien channel that only opens when certain chemicals are bound to it |
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Term
| Describe the events that occur in the pre- and postsynaptic fibers at a neuromuscular junction. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What is the neurotransmitter at a neuromuscular junction? |
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Definition
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Term
| How is muscle contraction initiated by an action potential? |
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Definition
| It causes the release of Ca in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the post synaptic fiber |
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Term
| What is meant by an excitatory neurotransmitter? |
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Definition
| a neurotransmitter that produces an excitatory response (fires an action potential) in the post synaptic cell |
|
|
Term
| what is An inhibitory neurotransmitter? |
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Definition
| a neurotransmitter that produces an inhibitory response (prevents firing of an action potential) in the post synaptic cell |
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Term
| Why is it necessary to have inhibitory transmitters in the CNS? |
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Definition
| some functions do not need an excitatory response |
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Term
| What large categories into which receptors can be divided? |
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Definition
| mechano, chemo, photo etc |
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Term
| What are the traits of many generalized receptors? |
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Definition
| they have bare nerve endings |
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Term
| What is the function of the lateral line of fish? |
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Definition
| Contains the fish's chemoreceptors |
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Term
| What are the specific specialized receptors? |
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Definition
| chemoreceptors (tastebuds), Mechanoreceptors (hair follicle), photoreceptor (rods and cones) |
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Term
| How are specialized receptors different from generalized receptors? |
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Definition
| specialized receptors function to do a certain type of sensing |
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Term
| What do root hair plexi sense? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What kind of receptor is a root hair plexi? |
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Definition
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Term
| Are root hair plexi on, off, or on-off receptors in most individuals? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is meant by tactile localization? |
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Definition
| determination of a touch receptive field based on 2 point perception |
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Term
| What is a receptive field? |
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Definition
| the area of the skin that 1 mechanoreceptor is responsible for |
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Term
| How do different areas of the body differ in receptive field size and density? |
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Definition
In areas where touch is needed, there are more receptive fields (ie the hand)
in areas where touch is less important, there are less receptive fields (ie the back) |
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Term
| Why are receptors characterized as transducers? |
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Definition
| They convert light, chemical or mechanical energy into an electrical impulse |
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Term
| How do receptors fit into the overall pathway of nervous conduction? |
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Definition
| they are the sensory neurons |
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Term
| What do photoreceptors detect? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What is a positive or negative taxis? |
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Definition
| A negative taxis is movement away from light. A positive taxis is moving toward light |
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Term
| What photoreceptors do planaria have? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What type of phototaxis do planria have? |
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Definition
| Negative b/c it best mimics their enviornment |
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|
Term
| What groups of animals can form well-defined images? |
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Definition
| vertebrates and arthropods |
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Term
| Is the ability to form well defined images a universal phenomenon or one that has evolved independently? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What is the structure of the arthropod eye? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What type of images are arthropods particularly good at detecting? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the structure of the cephalopod and vertebrate eye? How are they similar? How are they different? What structures are used for focusing in both? |
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Definition
-top notch predators
-structures for focusing, lens and cornea
-both transparent, bend light to a point on retina
-retina connects neurons to visual center of brain (via optic nerve)
-contain rods and cones |
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Term
|
Definition
| the location of photoreceptors in the eye |
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|
Term
| Of what two types of cells is the retina composed? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| How do rods and cones function? |
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Definition
| detect light (photoreceptors) |
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|
Term
| What type of light do rods and cones detect? |
|
Definition
rods- colorless vison (dim light)
cones- 3 populations of color cells (red, green, blue |
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Term
| What type of receptors are olfactory structures? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What animals have the most sensitive sense of smell? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| How is the moth olfactory sense more acute than other animals? |
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Definition
| the feathery chemoreceptors have a lot of surface area. Only 1 molecule of pheromones initiates action potential in the ganglion |
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Term
| For what do male moths use their sense of smell? |
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Definition
| to sniff out female moths |
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Term
|
Definition
| the scent a female moth produces when its time to mate |
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|
Term
| How can you tell a male moth from a female moth? |
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Definition
| featherieness of their antennae |
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Term
| What evidence is there that vertebrate olfaction is probably the oldest of the specialized senses? |
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Definition
| the nose is a direct pipeline to the brain |
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|
Term
| Where is the olfactory bulb located? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| How do the olfactory cells probably work? |
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Definition
| It is not well understood but there are probably different receptor sites for different molecules |
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|
Term
| Which vertebrates have the most sensitive sense of smell? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| For what do salmon use their sense of swim? |
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Definition
| swim upstream to where they were born to reproduce |
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Term
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Definition
| their tongue collects airborn molecules, jacobsons organ collects and gathers sensory info to send to the brain |
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Term
| What type of odors generally masks others? How might this work at the molecular level? |
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Definition
| strong odors, larger molecules |
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Term
| What type of receptors are auditory receptors? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Where are the auditory receptors located on insects? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What are the auditory receptors on insects called? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Why do insects have auditory receptors? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Where are ears located on vertebrates? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Which mammals have the most acute sense of audition? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What do bats do with their acute sense of hearing? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the basic structure of the mammalian ear? |
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Definition
| outer, middle and inner ear |
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|
Term
| How is the inner ear designed to convert sound waves into nerve impulses? |
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Definition
| hair cells move in fluid in inner ear attach to neurons that go directly to the auditory center |
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|
Term
| What type of receptors are gustatory receptors? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where are fly gustatory receptors located? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| Why is location of fly gustatory receptors advantageous to them? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the four basic flavors that they sense? |
|
Definition
| salty, sweet, bitter, umani |
|
|
Term
| Which area(s) of the tongue was/were most sensitive to all flavors? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| Which flavor seemed to be sensed most strongly by class members? |
|
Definition
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