- Begins on chromosomes at Origin of Replication

- Carried out by DNA polymerase II in bacteria

- Carried out by DNA polymerase alpha in Eukaryotes.

- DNA polymerase reads 3' to 5'

- Is where the enzyme first binds to the chromosome

Relieves supercoiling stress.

- breaks phosphodiester linkages & after relieving supercoiling stress it reforms the linkage = Ligation!

- Protect DNA from bonding with itself

- sub-unit structure: when interacting together they lock together to straighten out DNA.

- Can bind to single strand DNA

- RNA Polymerase

- SSDNA specific RNA Polymerase

- After it makes a 8 - 11 base pair strand it "Falls off" and then rebinds to synthesis another primer. (3' to 5')

- On 3' end = OH (Substrate for the active site of DNA Polymerase)

- repair enzyme

- scans DNA 

- removes RNA Primers

- 3' - 5'

- degrades RNA & synthesises DNA. Stop when it hits new DNA (PO4 = where it stops on 5')

- codes for nothing!

- 5-6 Nucleotides

- buffer (when chromosomes shrink)

- holds RNA molecule in active site (constantly) this is complementary to the DNA.

- gives more room for polymerase to lay down a new primer.

- in cancer this enzyme is kept on.

- 5' to 3'

- polymerase center; adds new nucleotide

- 3' to 5'

- check to see if mistakes were made (DNA degrading)

- tries to add correct base & cleans up error rate.

- one mistakes per every 10 million bases escapes.

- directed mismatch repair

- enzyme detection of mismatch (mismatched bases)

- the longer DNA hangs around in the cell, the more methylated it gets (CH3)

- methylated = methyl (CH3) group added.

- DNA Polymerase I = takes out string of nucleotides & synthesises in new string with correct base pairs.

(Ligase creates the linkages to repair the DNA)

Cytosin = most unstable base in DNA

(falls apart and forms Uracil)

- creates base pair mismatch (mutation)

- Thymine forms covalent bonds with Carbon

- this pulls Thymines closer together on one strand, creating a kink in the DNA.

- creates leision = mismatch with multiple base pairs

- DNA polymerase will stall or seize when this occurs

- DNA can be damaged by UV light (enduces Thymine dimers)

- recognized by gene repair proteins

- removes multiple nucleotides, not a single base!

- very small

- no membrane bound organelles

- difusion works to move substances intracellularly.

- random movement; not linear!!

- rigid structure

- spins flagella on axis

- helps the cell travel through aqueous mediums

- hollow in center

provides structure and protection

- peptidoglycan make up cell walls

- made of phospholipids

- maintains order inside the cell

- circular & occupies almost all of the cytoplasm of the cell

- nucleoid of the cell

- surrounded by nuclear envelope (2 membranes)

DNA = wrapped on proteins = chromosomes

(DNA wrapped proteins = Histones)

- condenses DNA to fit into tight space

- chromatin = DNA + Histones

Step 1. Transcription - DNA to RNA (through RNA polymerase) in Nucleus.

- Starts when RNA polymerase binds to DNA and copies a DNA strand to make RNA.

- RNA leaves through nuclear pore.

Step 2. Translation - Making protein from RNA (synthesizing a protein) in cytoplasm.

- 2 ribosome sub-units bind to RNA molecule (reads RNA sequence) and decides what Amino Acid to put together.

The first step in Gene Expression.

- starts when RNA polymerase binds to DNA & copies a DNA strand to make RNA. DNA to RNA in Nucleus (through RNA polymerase)

Second step in Gene Expression.

- 2 ribosome subunits bind to RNA molecule (reads RNA sequence) & decides what Amino Acids to put together. Making protein from RNA in Cytoplasm (synthesizing a protein)

- Made of rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

- Function = Translation

- protein synthesis using mRNA

- inside portion = lumen

- ribosomes are docked onto the ER by a signal peptide.

- carbs, lipids, proteins, and fats travel here

- For ribosomes to get to ER, Golgi, Lysosome/Vacuole, or Plasma Membrane - there needs to be a signal peptide.

- some proteins stay in lumen in ER or they split (being both inside and out) of the ER.

- CIS Face receives proteins inside vesicles.

- Trans Face is where stuff leaves the Golgi into vesicles as either soluable membranes or insoluable.

- Made up of flat membranous sacs.

- protein sorting; based on the sugars they have.

- proteins are packaged together in a single vessicle (similar proteins)

- vesicles then leave the Golgi and fuse with another protein bound organelle.

- Oxidize molecules, soluable in water & charged, help get rid of drugs (Muscle Cells)

- Break down molecules, build glycogen (Liver Cells)

- Synthesis glycogen (Muscle Cells), (all cells) storage of Calcium Ions.

- proteins go here from translated free ribosomes. 

- Oxidases present (catalase & peroxidase)

Cause oxidation; an electron that was broken from a covalent bond. Oxygen with an unpaired electron, oxidative damage to cells.

- catalase and peroxidase protect this from happening.

- an endpoint of the secretory system.

- fuses with cellular organelle that is damaged (this is how material gets inside the Lysosome)

Enzymes that cause hydrolysis.

- material injested is open to this.

- breaks down DNA, protein, fats...

- pH = very low! (4 or 5)

Carriers/Transport Proteins

- 2 membrane system (outer & inner)

- circular mitochondria DNA & ribosomes

Euglena(protist) = both Mitochondria & Chloroplast.

Fungi & Ameoba = Eukayotic cells, they have mitochondria.

Takes electrons from NADH & generates a force = Proton Motive Force/ Membrane Potential.

- ATP Synthase taps into Membrane Potential to synthesis ATP (cellular energy)

(Only in Mitochondria)

- Pyruvate dehydrogenase, Kreb's Cycle enzymes, Electron Transport Chain, & ATP Synthase.

- Thylakoid membrane system = Inner membrane (GREEN) 

- granum = flattened sacs

The electrons you take from water, reduce CO2.

- located in Stroma.

- reduce CO2 and make sugars.

- Narrowest (7 nm)

- Dynamic.

- Interacts with Myosin = motor protein

(catalyzes movement)

- Actin + Myosin = muscle contraction

- Conformational shift = Myosin cleaves phosphate off of ATP.

- Medium sized 

- stable for a long period of time.

- Not dynamic = don't grow or shrink.

- Bacterial cells do not have these!

(unique to multicellular organisms)

- cell to cell connection = desmosomes

- largest in diameter (25 nm)

- move chromosomes to daughter nuclei

- hollow

- Alpha and Beta monomers

- Neg Ends = Microtubule organizing centers.

- Pos Ends = growth and reduction

- Golgi & Centriole (Microtubule Org Center)

Dynein 

- Dynein arms walk along Microtubules which can bend & whip.

- sometimes hooks to vesicles

- Moves pos to neg ends.

- radiates away from the Golgi.

Kinesin

- Moves neg to pos ends.

- stay in Cytoplasm

- go back to Nucleus

- Chloroplast

- Mitochondria

- Peroxisome

Step 1: Denaturation 95 degrees C

Step 2: Annealing 45 - 68 degrees C. Primers hydrogen bond to template DNA (original DNA)

Step 3: Synthesis(Extension) 68 - 74 degrees C. Carried out by DNA polymerase, the new DNA is added = chain reaction.

(Needs primer)

- Change in absorbance

- Catalytic rate/ Enzyme activity

Vmax = no change

Km = higher numerical value

Vmax = lowered 

Km = stays the same