Smoking

Stress

Drinking alcohol

Eating foods with lots of saturated fats and high salt content

Kidney damage

Burst blood vessels

Brain damage (strokes)

Fainting

Dizziness

Poor blood circulation

Stamina

Strength

Speed

Flexibilty

Agility

Left - Oygenated 

Right - Deoxygenated

1. The deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium to from the vena cava
2. The blood is pumped through the tricuspid valves, into the right ventricle.
3. The right ventricle contracts, and pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery, which leads to the lungs.
4. The oxygenated blood enters the left atrium via the pulmonary veins.
5. The blood is then puped through the bicuspid valves into the left ventricle.
6. The left ventricle contracts to send blood to the rest of the body. 

ARTERIES: Thick lumen and muscular walls - to withstand high pressure

CAPILLARIES: One cell thick - allows substances to diffuse in and out of the vessel efficiently.

VEINS: Valves - to propel blood back to the heart and stop backflow

1. A diet of high saturated fats and salt cause high blood pressure.
2. The high blood pressure damages the artery walls and causes 'bumps' and 'nicks' on the walls.
3. Fatty deposits build up on the artery wall deformities.
4. A blood clot begins to develop on the deposits, narrowing the artery, and causing pain (angina)
5. If the artery is fully blocked, the heart cells cannot get the oxygen and nutrion that they need.
6. The cells begin to die. 

Smoking

High blood pressure

Diet of high saturated fat and salts

1. CARBOHYDRATES: The body's main source of energy - Pasta, potato, rice.
2. PROTEIN: For growth and repair - Meat, fish, eggs.
3. FAT: For body insulation and cell membrane formations - Cheese, butter, oils.
4. FIBRE: Prevents constipation and allows muscles to move food easily along the body - Fruit and vegetables
5. MINERALS: For maintaining blood health - iron, sodium
6. VITAMINS: For maintaining the immune system - Vitamin A, B, C
7. WATER: All chemical reactions take place in water. The body's water compostion must be maintained as it is lost through sweat and urine.

First class - Contains more essential amino acids and usually comes from animals/meats.

Second class - Contains less essential amino acids and usually comes from plants, nuts, pulses and beans.

Vegetarians

Vegans

Religious people (Kosher, Halal)

Diabetics

Lactose intolerant

People with allergies

Macronutrients are nutrients that provide calories or energy, and are needed in large amounts.

The three main classes are carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

High blood pressure

Heart disease

Type 2 diabetes

Gall stones

Breathing problems 

Cancer

BMI=Weight in kilograms ÷ Height in centimetres²

Extremely muscular people a very fit, but not obese, but there BMI would be high because their muscle is very heavy. 

Environment

Family history and genetics

Metabolism

Behaviour and habits

Energy balance should be the balance between the amount of energy we consume with the energy we use for MRS GREN.

Same energy in and out = normal weight

More energy in less energy out = weight gain

Less enery in more energy out = weight loss

Being physically active

Following a healthy diet and trying not to exceed recommended calorific intake

Limiting the time that you are being physically inactive.

Mouth

Nose

Cuts and bites

By releasing toxins

Invading and damaging our cells

Bacteria - Cholera

Virus - Common cold/Influenza

Fungi - Ringworm/Athlete's foot

Protazoa - Malaria

1. External defenses - skin, mucus, cilia, scabs, enzymes and acids
2. Lymphocytes release antibodies which fit to a certain antigen of the pathogen. Antibodies can..

•  Destroy or damage the pathogen
• Clump pathogens together so that it is easier for the phagocyte to engulf them
• Release chemical signals to attract phagocytes

3. Phagocytes ingest or absorb the pathogen and can release an enzyme to destroy them.

Vaccination - injecting a weak or dead form of a pathogen into the body so that the next time the pathogen enters the body, the white blood cells can fight away the disease quicker because the cells recognise the pathogen.

Antibiotics - Effective with fighting bacteria and viruses, however some pathogens have become resistant to the antibiotics.

Anaemia - Iron deficiency in the blood 

Diabetes - Too much sugar in the bloodstream

Scurvy - Vitamin C deficiency

Cystic fibrosis - Build up of sticky, thick mucus

Haemophillia - Lack of platelets in blood; inability for blood to clot

Sickle cell - Deformity of red blood cells 

Red/Green colour blindness 

Benign - cells devide slowly and are not harmful

Malignant - cells divide uncontrollably and a very harmful; may spread throughout the body

Smoking - lung cancer

Not using sun screen/tanning - skin cancer

Not eating enough fibre - bowel cancer

Living organisms that live on or in the host organism. The parasite benefits but the host suffers.

A tapeworm in a human's gut will absorb all the nutrients that the human eats. The human may suffer from weight loss, diarrhoea and vomiting.

It is caused by the anopheles mosquito spreading the plasmodium from person to person by sucking an infected persons blood, then transferring the infected blood to another human, which allows the plasmodium to secrete into the human's blood. 

The mosquito is the vector because it carries the disease but does not directly cause it. 

Penicillin - Breaks down cell walls

Erythromycin/Neomycin/Vancomycin - Stops protein synthesis

Ciprofloxacin - Stops DNA replication

Because it has become resistant to antibiotics due to natural selection.

Antibiotics should not be overused because it will provide more opportunities for strains of resistant bacteria.

1. Sight - Eyes - Light - Rods (Colour) and Cones (Light)
2. Smell - Nose - Chemicals in the air - Olfactory receptor
3. Taste - Mouth - Chemicals in food - Taste buds
4. Sound - Ear - Vibrations in the air - Cochlea
5. Touch - Skin - Pressure/Heat/Pain - Open nerve endings

Long - convex lens because it refracts the light so that it is focused ON the retina, instead of behind.

Short - concave lens because it refracts the light so that it is focused ON the retina instead of in front.

Binocular vision is for animals that hunt, as the eyes are positioned on the front of their head, so that their field of view is combined. This enables animals to judge depth and distance.

Monocular vision is for animals that are common prey, as eyes at either side of their head allow a larger field of view, so that they can see in a wider range of directions, but they can't measure distance and depth. 

The organs that bring out a response to a stimulus. 

1. A muscle contracting
2. A hormone being secreted by a gland.

A specialised cell used to pass on electrical impulses throughout the body.

1. Sensory - carry signals from the receptor to the CNS
2. Relay - carry signals between neurones in the CNS
3. Motor - carry signals from CNS to effector.

1. An axon
2. A fatty myelin sheath that protects and insulates the eletrical impulses
3. Dendrites that allow impulses to be transmitted from cell to cell.

Synapse

A chemical transmitter is released from one neurone to another so that the impulse can continue. 

1. A reflex action - a response is passed straight to the motor neurone via a relay neurone. INVOLUNTARY
2. The signal is sent to the brain so that the organism can decide which repsonse to initiate. VOLUNTARY

All reflexes are...?

Give an example of some reflex actions.

Fast

Do not need conscious thought

Protect the body

• Pupil dilation
• Knee jerk
• Accomodation
• Taking your hand off of a hot object

1. Stimulus is detected by receptor
2. Electrical impulse is sent along the sensory neurone
3. Relay neurone immediately passes the impulse on to a motor neurone
4. Motor neurone passes impulse to the effector
5. Muscle contracts

1. Stimulants - Caffeine - Increases alertness
2. Performance enhancers - Steroids - Improve muscle development
3. Hallucinogens - LSD - Hallucinations and lots of energy
4. Painkillers - Aspirin - Supress pain receptors
5. Depressants - Alcohol - Slow down nerve impulses

Class A

Posession = 7 years prisonment and/or unlimited fine

Supply - Life imprisonment and/or unlimited fine

Class B

Posession = 5 years imprisonment and/or unlimited fine

Supply = 14 years imprisonment and/or unlimited fine

Class C

Posession = 2 years imprisonment and/or unlimited fine

Supply = 14 years imprisonment and/or unlimited fine

• Stimulants speed up the transmission of nervous impulses over the synapse by increasing the amount of neurotransmitters sent across the synapse.
• Depressants block the receptors on the receiving neurone.

• Nicotine - a very addictive drug that can cause heart disease because of an increase in blood pressure and narrowed arteries.
• Tar and particulates - coats the lining of the lungs and reduces gaseous exchange. It contains caarinogens which can cause cancer.
• Carbon monoxide - this gas is produced and binds to the haemoglobin and reduces the bloods capacity for oxygen.

Short

Tiredness

Disorientation

Slurred speech

Blurred vision

Impaired balance/control

Long

Liver damage (cirrhosis)

Brain damage

Homeostasis - The maintenance of the body's internal environment.

It controls temperature, water levels, sugar levels and mineral content.

1. Pituritary - controls all hormones and glands
2. Thyroid - thyroid hormones
3. Adrenal - adrenaline
4. Pancreas - insulin
5. Ovaries - progestorone and oestrogen
6. Testes - testosterone 

Too high

1. ---

   Insulin is secreted by the pancreas
2. Insulin helps glucose to be absorbed by tissues and cells
3. Liver absorbs glucose and converts it into glycogen
4. Blood sugar levels drop

Too low

1. Glucagon is secreted by the pancreas instead of insulin
2. The tissues and cells absorb less glucose because of the lack of insulin
3. Glucagon allows the liver to convert glycogen back into glucose
4. Blood sugar levels rise

Type 1 = lack of insulin, so people have to monitor their blood sugar levels and inject insulin.

Type 2 = resistance to insulin so people have to control this through exercise and diet.

• Sweating - water evaporating from our skin absorbs heat energy
• Vasodilation - if warm blood is nearer to the surface of our skin, then cool air and surroundings can absorb the heat energy.

Being too hot can cause dehydration, hyperthermia and heat stroke

• Shivering - shivering increases kinetic energy, therefore increasing heat.
• Vasoconstriction - Warm blood being further away from the surface of the skin means less heat energy can be absorbed from our surroundings.
• Sweating less

Too high

1. ---

   Hypothalamus detects an excess of water
2. Pituritary gland secretes less ADH
3. The aquaporrine to open more, allowing more water into the kidney
4. More water can reach the bladder along with the urine
5. Water levels go back to normal

Too low

1. The hypothalamus detects a shortage of water
2. Pituritary gland secretes more ADH
3. The aquaporrine close up, causing less water to be absorbed
4. Less water can reach the bladder
5. Water levels go back to normal

Positive - Growing towards the stimulus

Negative - Growing away from the stimulus 

Stem 

Negative geotropism

Positive phototropism

Roots

Positive geotropism

Negative phototropism

Describe what has happened to seed A, B and C in this image and why.

[image]

A - the tips of the shoots have been cut off, therefore no auxins are being produces and the plant cannot grow.

B - no  light can reach the shoots, therefore the auxins are spread out evenly throughout the shoot, so the shoots grow directly up.

C - the light stimulus is coming from the right side of the shoot, therefore there will be a higher concentration of auxins on the left side of the shoot, so that the left side can grow faster than the right side, so it bends towards the light.

Selective weed killers - weed killers can kill certain plants whilst not affecting the others. For example it can kill a dandelion without killing the grass. The weed killer contains a growth hormone that causes the weed to grow too fast and absorb the weedkiller is then absorbed faster, in larger quantities.

Controlling fruit ripening - farmers can delay the ripening of fruit if it is not needed, or they can speed up  

the ripening process of  fruit if it is needed. 

Seedless fruit - Hormones can be sprayed on to plants in order for them to inhibit the production of seeds in fruit.

Large fruit - Farmers can add more growth hormones to fruit producing plants which makes their fruit grow very large.

Continuous - small differences between individuals that can be affected by surroundings (hair length, shoe size, height). They are plotted on a line graph

Discontinuous - differences that can be categorised or put into classes (blood type, gender, eye colour). They are plotted on a bar/pie chart

Small - species will thrive and may be better than the original species, nd offspring will flourish, whilst inheriting their characteristics.

Large - the organism may not survive to reproduce.

Heterozygous = Two different alleles

Homozygous = Two of the same allele

Dominant +Dominant = Dominant

Dominant + Recessive = Dominant

Recessive + Dominant = Dominant

Recessive + Recessive = Recessive 

Genotype - genetic makeup of an individual (their combinations of alleles)

Phenotype - the characteristics/allele that is expressed by the individual (their eye colour)

When a plant or an animal is bred with another plant or animal that differs in only one gene.

e.g YY and yy OR Aa and Aa